Bibliography - Assistance Dogs

Collection 3

Are we missing something? Please email Tiamat Warda with article suggestions at [email protected].

15 Health of Assistance Dogs

We compared the effects of different feeding strategies on hormonal and oxidative stress biomarkers in guide dogs during specialized training programs. Eight neutered adult dogs belonging to the Labrador retriever breed were divided during the training work into two homogeneous groups for sex (2 males, 2 females), age (17 months ± 1), initial body weight (26.3 kg ± 1), and BCS (4.5 of 9 ± 0.11) and fed two commercial diets with different concentration of energetic nutrients. One diet was a performance diet (HPF) characterized by low-carbohydrate/high-protein and fat content (29:39:19% as-fed) and the other a normal maintenance diet (LPF), characterized by high-carbohydrate/low-protein and fat content (50:24:12% as-fed). The trial lasted 84 days. At days 0, 28, 56, and 84, 180 min before the training work (T0) and immediately after (T1) and after 120 min (T2), blood adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), cortisol, d-ROMS (reactive oxygen metabolites–derived compounds), and BAP (biological antioxidant potential) were evaluated. Lactate was measured at T0 and T1. The statistical model included the effects of diet (HPF vs. LPF), time (from day 0 to day 84, end of the trial), and exercise (T0, T1, and T2) and their interaction. ACTH (P = 0.002) and cortisol (P = 0.013) showed higher values in the HPF than in the LPF group; there were no significant differences observed for lactate. Time showed no significant difference for any hormones or blood lactate. Exercise significantly (P < 0.001) influenced ACTH and cortisol concentrations, showing higher values at T1 than T0 and T2, and with lactate higher (P < 0.0001) at T1 than T0. Diet did not influence biomarkers of oxidative stress. Time did significantly (P < 0.05) influence BAP results but not d-ROMs. Exercise had no effect on BAP results, but d-ROMs were higher at T0 than T2 (P = 0.001). There was no interaction effect. The pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis response and the oxidative stress indices could represent an objective method to identify optimal dietary protocols for creating a successful guide dog during the early training period.

Despite increasing information on enhancing client communication and compliance/adherence in veterinary medicine, literature focusing on special cases remains limited: working with clients with special needs, challenges or disabilities, or when the patient is an assistance or emotional support animal. This paper summarizes current recommendations on how best to build successful working relationships with these clients, including action items to implement in practice. In addition, this paper reviews current literature on important considerations for care of assistance dogs as patients.

Assistance dog puppies live with their raisers for up to 16 months before entering advanced training and, hopefully, becoming qualified to help people with a disability. Almost half of the puppies fail to meet the behavioural standards required for assistance dogs, and some puppy raisers produce more behaviourally favourable puppies than others. It is unclear what factors influence puppy-raising practice quality. To understand this, we interviewed 17 participants, including experienced puppy raisers (n = 8), provider organisation staff (n = 4), and those who have served both as puppy raisers and staff (n = 5). Results of a thematic analysis suggest three groups of influencing factors, namely intrapersonal factors, social support, and puppy characteristics. Intrapersonal factors such as expectations, competency, perseverance and passion were reported to influence puppy raisers’ experiences, puppy-raising quality, and continuity of service. Contextual factors such as availability of social support (informational and emotional supports) and less-demanding puppies both led to positive puppy-raising experiences, while the former also contributed to puppy raisers’ perceptions of competency. Future research should quantitatively examine the interrelationships of these factors concerning puppies’ behavioural development. Meanwhile, organisations could consider these factors when developing their recruitment and puppy-raiser support programs.

Despite over 70% of guide dog owners reporting that their emotional wellbeing had been affected by a dog attack on their guide dog, in-depth qualitative studies examining this issue are lacking. The aim of this work was to further our understanding of the impact of a dog attack on the overall, holistic wellbeing of the guide dog owner. A total of 20 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with guide dog owners whose dogs had been the victim of a dog attack. The data were analysed thematically. Findings suggest that a dog attack can have a long-term impact on a guide dog owner’s physical, emotional, social, and spiritual wellbeing. As such, service providers who manage the aftermath of an attack should recognise the potentially multiple and long-term effects on guide dog owner wellbeing and the importance of more holistically oriented support.

Service dogs, also known as assistance dogs, are seen increasingly in public places, including healthcare settings. Whereas an earlier article reviewed literature relevant to the human‐animal bond in general, this, article recounts my personal and professional experiences as a volunteer for Canine Companions for Independence (CCI). Rehabilitation professionals are advocates for their clients, and this article provides important information about the issues, benefits, and challenges in obtaining, training, and living with a service dog. For additional information, sources available through the Internet and a bibliography are provided.

The aim of this study was to determine whether objective measures of laterality could be used to identify dogs with a high probability of successfully completing a Guide Dog Training Programme. Three categories of laterality (motor, sensory, and structural), were assessed in 114 dogs entering guide dog training. Significant predictors of success were identified: the direction of laterality (P = 0.028), paw preference category in the ‘Kong’ test (P = 0.043), hindpaw clearance height (P = 0.002), laterality indices for a number of measures in the Sensory Jump test, and chest hair whorl direction (P = 0.050). This is the first study to report a structural marker of canine behaviour. All three categories of laterality may be used to predict the suitability of dogs for guiding work, and by identifying predictors of success, resources can be more efficiently utilised on dogs with greater potential.

16 Welfare of Assistance Dogs

This paper examines one approach to the ethics of companion animals, which emerges from the dominant historical tradition and is increasingly familiar in everyday life as well as in work on companion animals in the social sciences. I label it the “utilization with welfare-safeguards” model, or, more gently worded, “seeking benefits while ensuring welfare.” Some of the “benefits” considered are complex ones (like guiding the sight impaired) and others simpler (like reducing stress or providing affection). I explore several problems involved in this approach (including the sometimes jarring inappropriateness of “benefit” terminology). I then offer an alternative account where the primary moral obligation toward companion animals is to develop, nurture, respect, and protect the loving relationship between them and their human companions, since thriving in such a relationship, I claim, has become part of their evolved telos (to use Bernard Rollin’s term) or evolved nature. This priority naturally leads to ensuring welfare, but the highly pro-active approach involved takes the obligation beyond standard welfare provision and “TLC” (“tender loving care”). Some implications of this position are explored.

This study explored the relationships between adults with disabilities and service dogs through leisure participation. The relationships between service dog and owner and perceptions of and access to leisure were explored via semi-structured interviews. Emergent themes included feelings of interdependence and a lifelong emotional connection. Themes related to perceptions of and access to leisure included service dog orientation and the influence of lifestyle. Owners felt that having a service dog was a positive influence on leisure activities. The emotional connection between owner and service dog was multidimensional, inclusive of trust, maintaining independence, increased socialization, and creating a need to participate in leisure experiences. The cognitive hierarchy model, and experiential learning and transformational learning theories were applied.

Dogs for the Disabled is an organisation recently established in the UK to provide trained assistance dogs to enhance the mobility and independence of people with physical disabilities. Fifty-seven recipients of a Dog for the Disabled (90% of all recipients) took part in a questionnaire survey to assess satisfaction with their dog, commitment to the dog's welfare, and other changes in their life brought about by obtaining their dog. Subjects reported an increased sense of social integration, enhancement to self-perceived health, and an affectionate, often supportive, relationship with their dog. Levels of satisfaction with the dog's work and the quality of the recipient–dog relationship were greater in subjects for whom the idea to have a dog was their own than in subjects who were influenced by other people to acquire a dog. These differences were small but statistically significant and may be a useful predictor in future applicants of the success of the working relationship.

There is a growing interest in the “use” of service-dogs to enable persons living with disability to navigate the world more independently in North American culture. While this may appear to be progress, the question remains, for whom? Although there is evidence that the presence of a service-dog is beneficial for persons living with a variety of disabilities, this trend is not devoid of embedded assumptions and a related need for caution. How persons living with disability and nonhuman animals, in this case dogs, are treated both matter equally. One set of needs stemming from structural oppression must not eclipse another’s set of needs. The “use” of one party in order to emancipate another, is therefore fraught with necessary cautions. There are shared oppressions and rights at both ends of the service dog leash.

Despite over 70% of guide dog owners reporting that their emotional wellbeing had been affected by a dog attack on their guide dog, in-depth qualitative studies examining this issue are lacking. The aim of this work was to further our understanding of the impact of a dog attack on the overall, holistic wellbeing of the guide dog owner. A total of 20 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with guide dog owners whose dogs had been the victim of a dog attack. The data were analysed thematically. Findings suggest that a dog attack can have a long-term impact on a guide dog owner’s physical, emotional, social, and spiritual wellbeing. As such, service providers who manage the aftermath of an attack should recognise the potentially multiple and long-term effects on guide dog owner wellbeing and the importance of more holistically oriented support.

Assistance animals play significant roles in human therapy and well-being and represent a rapidly growing demographic of animals in society. Most research in the field of assistance animals has been focused on the effect of these animals on people. Only recently has there been a growing interest in the welfare and well-being of these animals and the effect of the work on the animals themselves. The concept of retirement, or withdrawing the animal from its working life, is an important welfare consideration that has received minimal discussion in the scientific literature. The notion of retirement is typically regarded as a reward earned after a lifetime of work, but this inevitable phase of an animal's working life has positive and negative implications for both animal and handler. Some of these implications include recognizing the emotional impact of this life-altering event on both animal and handler. The decisions of when and how to appropriately retire an animal are typically made at the discretion of the assistance animal agencies and handlers, but standard evidence-based guidelines for the proper retirement of assistance animals are currently unavailable. This review will provide considerations and recommendations for the retirement that assistance animals deserve.

This paper explores the intersection of assistance dog welfare and intelligent systems with a technological intervention in the form of an emergency canine alert system. We make the case that assistance dog welfare can be affected by the welfare of their human handlers, and examine the need for a canine alert system that enables the dog to take control over a potentially distressing situation thus improving assistance dog welfare. We focus on one specific subset of assistance dogs, the Diabetes Alert Dog, who are trained to warn their diabetic handlers of dangerously low or high blood sugar levels.

This chapter demonstrates how the use of therapy and assistance animals significantly enhances human health and well-being. It addresses whether this end morally justifies the means of achieving it. The goal is to re-examine the animal/human partnership from the animal's viewpoint to see what the benefits might be for the animal, or to see if the raising, training, and use of therapy and assistance animals is causing significant degradation in their welfare. Further welfare challenges arise when therapy and assistance animals begin to age. There are many potential sources of chronic stress in the lives of therapy and assistance animals. Trainers, practitioners, and end-users of these animals should be educated to recognize the warning signs and act accordingly. Recent advances in avian medicine, nutrition, and behavior reveal that most of these birds have highly specialized needs relating to air quality, nutrition, lighting, housing, sleep, and both environmental and social enrichment. The lifecycle of the typical assistance animal generally involves a series of relatively abrupt changes in its social and physical environment. Assistance animals are expected to obey complex commands and perform relatively challenging physical activities that also create a potential for welfare problems.

Service dogs have been used in the adult population for decades. Recently, there has been a diversification in types of service dogs, specifically for the pediatric population. Although guide dogs and mobility dogs are accepted in society, autism assistance dogs, seizure alert and response dogs and diabetic alert dogs are relatively new. As pediatric service dogs attract more attention, pediatric providers need to be prepared to answer parental inquires regarding service dog use. The pediatric provider is well equipped to identify children who could benefit from a service dog intervention and should be able to make a referral to a reputable service dog provider. This article presents guidance on appropriate patient selection, making a service dog referral, and risks and benefits involved. Pediatric providers are ideally positioned to be leaders in implementing this evolving new assistive technology that can help to alleviate pediatric disabilities for both the patient and family.

17 History of Assistance Dogs

The first guide dog school was established in Germany during World War I to care for German soldiers blinded in that war. Other schools in Germany followed. Observation by an American at one of the schools led to the creation of the first guide dog school in the United States in 1929, “The Seeing Eye.” Additional U.S. schools were opened during and after World War II. This article discusses the history of guide dog use by veterans, including the formation of the first guide dog schools in response to aiding blinded servicemen, and the involvement of federal agencies and guide dog schools in providing assistance to blinded veterans.

This article scrutinises issues around disability and dependent (interdependent) agency, extending these to non-human animals and service dogs, with a sustained reference to the training of guide dogs. It does this through a detailed engagement with the training methodology and philosophy of The Seeing Eye guide dog school in the 1930s, exploring the physical, bodily and instrumental means through which the guide dog partnership, and the identity of the instructor, the guide dog and the guide dog owner, jointly came into being. The novelty of the article lies in how it reconsiders what interdependence meant and means from the perspectives drawing from historical and sociological literature on dog training. In doing so it opens up new ways of thinking about service animals that recognise their historical contingency and the complex processes at work in the creation and development of interdependent agency.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made.

Dogs’ roles to support people with disabilities are increasing. Existing U.S. laws and regulations pertaining to the use of dogs for people with disabilities are only minimally enforced. Pushback legislation against some aspects of uses of assistance dogs currently is being passed or proposed in several states. Further, the U.S. Department of the Army and the Veterans’ Administration support only dogs trained by an Assistance Dogs International (ADI) or International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) accredited facility. Lacking a mandatory national process for screening the selection, training, and placement of assistance dogs with persons who have disabilities, the U.S. offers a creative but confusing opportunity for people to train their own dogs for any disability. While no U.S. surveillance system monitors assistance dogs, other countries generally have a legislated or regulatory process for approving assistance dogs or a cultural convention for obtaining dogs from accredited facilities. We conducted an online survey investigating current demographics of assistance dogs placed in 2013 and 2014 with persons who have disabilities, by facilities worldwide that are associated with ADI or IGDF and by some non-accredited U.S. facilities. Placement data from ADI and IGDF facilities revealed that in most countries aside from the U.S., guide dogs were by far the main type of assistance dog placed. In the U.S., there were about equal numbers of mobility and guide dogs placed, including many placed by large older facilities, along with smaller numbers of other types of assistance dogs. In non-accredited U.S. facilities, psychiatric dogs accounted for most placements. Dogs for families with an autistic child were increasing in all regions around the world. Of dog breeds placed, accredited facilities usually mentioned Labrador Retrievers and Golden Retrievers, and sometimes, German Shepherd Dogs. The facilities bred their dogs in-house, or acquired them from certain breeders. Non-accredited facilities more often used dogs from shelters or assisted people in training their own dogs. Facilities in Europe and the U.S. place dogs in all roles; other parts of the world primarily focus on guide dogs. Expansion of assistance dogs in many roles is continuing, with numbers of dogs placed accelerating internationally.

18 Benefits of Assistance Dogs Concept

Purpose: This cross-sectional study examined whether partnering with service dogs influenced psychosocial well-being and community participation of adult individuals using wheelchairs or scooters.
Method: One hundred and fifty-two people were recruited and group-matched, resulting in 76 participants with and 76 without service dogs. Standardized scale scores for affect, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and loneliness were used to operationally define psychosocial well-being. Community participation was assessed with the ‘Social Integration’ domain of the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique.
Results: Psychosocial characteristics did not differ significantly between those partnered with and without service dogs overall. However, of participants with progressive conditions, those with service dogs demonstrated significantly higher positive affect scores than comparison group participants. Among those with clinical depression, service dog partners scored significantly higher in positive affect. Finally, regardless of whether individuals had service dogs, fewer depressive symptoms and being female or married were predictors of greater community participation.
Conclusion: Select individuals may experience psychosocial benefits from partnering with service dogs. However, it is unclear if these benefits might also be derived from companion dogs. Further research is needed to substantiate the findings of this study.

Objective

To compare the mechanical and muscular efforts generated in the non-dominant upper limb (U/L) when ascending a ramp with and without the use of a mobility assistance dog (AD_Mob) in a manual wheelchair user with a spinal cord injury.

Method

The participant ascended a ramp at natural speed using his personal wheelchair with (three trials) and without (three trials) his AD_Mob. Movement parameters of the wheelchair, head, trunk, and non-dominant U/L (i.e. hand, forearm, and arm segments) were recorded with a motion analysis system. The orthogonal force components applied on the hand rims by the U/Ls were computed with instrumented wheels. Muscular activity data of the clavicular fibers of the pectoralis major, the anterior fibers of the deltoid, the long head of the biceps brachii, and the long head of the triceps brachii were collected at the non-dominant U/L.

Results

During uphill propulsion with the AD_Mob, the total and tangential forces applied at the non-dominant handrim, along with the rate of rise of force, were reduced while mechanical efficiency was improved compared to uphill propulsion without the AD_Mob. Similarly, the resultant net joint movements (wrist, elbow, and shoulder) and the relative muscular demands (biceps, triceps, anterior deltoid, pectoralis major) decreased during uphill propulsion with an AD_Mob versus without an AD_Mob.

Conclusion

Propelling uphill with the assistance of an AD_Mob reduces U/L efforts and improves efficiency compared to propelling uphill without its assistance in a manual wheelchair user with a spinal cord injury.

Purpose: Companion dogs can provide psychosocial benefits for their owners. Assistance dogs reportedly provide similar benefits, while also performing specific tasks. These psychosocial benefits may increase their handler’s quality of life and ability to thrive – defined as having the ability to grow and flourish, especially in the face of adversity. Currently, no studies compare assistance dogs’ effectiveness to companion dogs’ in assisting their handler/owner to thrive, an important comparison given that companion dogs are typically less expensive to acquire, and more readily available.

Methods: The Thriving Through Relationships (TTR) theory was used to inform the development of a human-dog relationship survey, which was distributed through assistance dog organizations and to the general public.

Results: Participants were divided into three groups: persons with a disability who had an assistance dog (n = 165), persons with a disability who had a companion dog (n = 249) and persons with no disability who had a companion dog (n = 198). Perceived overall support was statistically different between the three groups, F (2, 394) = 14.45, p < .001. Assistance dog handlers reported receiving significantly higher levels of support than companion dog owners with disabilities (p < .01) or without disabilities (p < .001). In fact, assistance dogs were reported to provide more support (p < .017) than companion dogs on nine out of ten separate indicators of thriving.

Conclusion: Overall, dogs are perceived to provide support that improves their handler/owner’s ability to thrive. Most importantly, however, assistance dogs may provide greater support than companion dogs for persons with a disability and, therefore, may be worth the additional time and financial cost.

Implications for Rehabilitation
Assistance dogs could assist rehabilitation by improving coping skills, especially during times of adversity, as demonstrated through the ten indicators of thriving.
Assistance dogs and companion dogs are not inter-changeable when it comes to providing support for individuals with a disability.

Background

Quality of life refers to a person’s experienced standard of health, comfort and happiness and is typically measured using subjective self-report scales. Despite increasing scientific interest in the value of dogs to human health and the growing demand for trained service dogs, to date no research has reported how service dogs may affect client perceptions of quality of life.

Method

We compared quality of life scores on the 16 item Flanagan quality of life scale from individuals who owned a trained service dog with those who were eligible to receive a dog, but did not yet have one (waiting list control). Data were analysed separately from two groups; those with a service dog trained for individuals with physical disabilities (with physical service dog: n = 72; waiting for a service dog: n = 24; recruited from Dogs for Good database) and those with a hearing service dog (with hearing service dog = 111; waiting for a service dog = 30; recruited from Hearing Dogs for Deaf People database).

Results

When controlling for age and gender individuals scored higher on total quality of life scores if they owned a service dog or a hearing service dog, but this was only statistically significant for those with a service dog. Both groups (physical service dog and hearing service dog) scored significantly higher on items relating to health, working, learning and independence if they owned a service dog, in comparison to those on the waiting list. Those with a physical service dog also scored significantly higher on items relating to recreational activities (including items relating to reading/listening to music, socialising, creative expression), and those involving social interactions (including items relating to participating in organisations, socialising, relationship with relatives). Additionally, those with a physical service dog scored higher on understanding yourself and material comforts than those on the waiting list control. In contrast, those with a hearing service dog appeared to receive fewer benefits on items relating to social activities.

Conclusions

Owning a service dog can bring significant specific and potentially general benefits to the quality of life of individuals with physical disabilities and hearing impairments. These benefits may have considerable implications for individuals with disabilities, society and the economy by promoting independence, learning and working abilities.

Scientific literature exploring the value of assistance dogs to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is rapidly emerging. However, there is comparably less literature reporting the effects of pet (as opposed to assistance) dogs to these children. In particular, there are no known validated scales which assess how children may alter their behaviours in the presence of the dog, to evaluate the efficacy of pet dogs to these families. Additionally, given the highly individualised nature of ASD it is likely that some children and families gain more benefits from dog ownership than others, yet no research has reported the effect of individual differences. This pilot study reports the development of a 28-item scale based on the perceived impact of a pet dog on a child with autism by parents (Lincoln Autism Pet Dog Impact Scale — LAPDIS). The scale is comprised of three mathematically derived factors: Adaptability, Social Skills and Conflict Management. We assessed how individual differences (aspects) may be associated with scores on these three factors. Family Aspects and Dog Aspects were not significantly associated with ratings on the three factors, but Child Aspects (including: contact with horses, child age, disability level and language abilities) were related to impact of the dog on all factors. Training Aspects were related to scores on Social Skills (formal training with children with ASD and dogs and attendance at PAWS workshops run by Dogs for Good). These results suggest that individual differences associated with the child and the training approach may be important considerations for a positive impact from dog ownership on families with children with ASD. Differences in family features and the dog may not be so important, but may be worthy of further investigations given the early stage of development in this field.

Die Menge der wissenschaftlichen Literatur zur Erforschung des Nutzens von Assistenzhunden für Kinder mit Autismus-Spektrum-Störungen steigt rapide. Dennoch gibt es vergleichsweise wenig Literatur über die Auswirkungen von Haushunden (als Gegensatz zu Assistenzhunden) auf diese Kinder. Insbesondere gibt es keine überprüften Skalen, die beurteilen, wie sich das Verhalten von Kindern in der Anwesenheit eines Hundes verändert, um die Wirksamkeit von Haushunden in diesen Familien zu untersuchen. Zudem ist es aufgrund des stark individuellen Charakters von Autismus-Spektrum-Störungen wahrscheinlich, dass manche Kinder und Familien mehr Vorteile vom Hundebesitz erfahren als andere, bisher wurde aber in keiner Studie über individuelle Unterschiede berichtet. Diese Pilotstudie berichtet über die Entwicklung einer Skala mit 28 Punkten, die auf dem von den Eltern wahrgenommenen Einfluss eines Haustiers auf ein Kind mit Autismus basiert (Lincoln Autism Pet Dog Impact Scale — LAPDIS). Die Skala setzt sich aus drei mathematisch hergeleiteten Faktoren zusammen: Anpassungsfähigkeit, soziale Fähigkeiten und Konfliktmanagement. Es wurde beurteilt, wie die individuellen Unterschiede (Aspekte) mit den Werten dieser drei Faktoren zusammenhängen könnten. Familien-Aspekte und Hunde-Aspekte waren nicht signifikant mit den Bewertungen der drei Faktoren verbunden, aber Kinder-Aspekte (einschließlich: Kontakt mit Pferden, Alter, Grad der Behinderung und Sprachfähigkeiten) waren mit dem Einfluss des Hundes auf alle Faktoren verbunden. Ausbildungsaspekte waren mit Werten der sozialen Fähigkeiten verbunden (formales Training mit Kindern mit Autismus-Spektrum-Störungen und Hunden und Teilnahme an einem Workshop). Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass individuelle Unterschiede, die mit dem Kind und dem Ausbildungsansatz in Verbindung stehen, wichtige Berücksichtigungen für einen positiven Einfluss des Hunde-Besitzes auf Familien mit Kindern, die unter Autismus-Spektrum-Störungen leiden, sein könnten. Unterschiede bei Familien-Merkmalen oder Hunden könnten nicht so wichtig sein. Da sich die Entwicklung dieses Feldes allerdings noch in der Frühphase befindet, sind weitere Untersuchungen angemessen.

This chapter first reviews the research-based information about the benefits of pets, especially for the most vulnerable people, and then addresses the practical implementation of this expanding research. The positive psychosocial effects of human/animal relationships engage interest, arising from firsthand experiences with pet animals and scientific curiosity, as well as the practical questions concerning how best to include pets as an adjunct for treatment for an autistic child or a paraplegic veteran, or to enhance the quality of life of an elderly person in an assisted-living facility. Despite the ever-growing research literature on the psychosocial effects of animals, a significant gap remains between that knowledge base and implementing it into treatment or support services for psychosocially vulnerable people. This chapter suggests that to enjoy the positive effects, a relationship with an animal should be individually tailored to the psychosocial characteristics of the person. Epidemiological studies of entire communities identify subcultures where certain individual circumstances, neighborhoods, geographical features, or special situations are associated with beneficial or adverse health parameters. Employing epidemiological methods with statistical representation of the entire community offers a view of the context, including the community's affluence, geography, age, gender, and ethnicity of pet-owning participants. The new development will spearhead the creation and availability of curricular resources and enhance the number of people prepared to provide leadership in the area of human/animal interaction, bringing research into practice.

This retrospective study of people in wheelchairs who have service dogs reports their experiences with strangers in public before and after obtaining their dogs. The specific hypothesis tested was that the acquisition of a service dog would increase the number of friendly approaches by strangers. Subjects reported a significantly higher number of social greetings from adults and children on typical shopping trips with the dog as compared with those received on trips before they had the dog or with recent trips when the dog was not present. Subjects with service dogs reported more approaches than a control group without dogs. After obtaining dogs, subjects also increased their evening outings.

Emotional aspects of owning hearing dogs were explored in 38 hearing-dog owners and a control group of 23 prospective owners. Both groups listed companionship and hearing assistance as pleasant reasons for owning such dogs. Having a dog and personal independence were reasons mentioned only by prospective owners. Both groups mentioned travel complications as unpleasant problems. Owners referred to dogs' behavior problems significantly more often than did prospective owners who appeared to have unrealistic expectations that dog ownership would be problem-free.

This paper examines one approach to the ethics of companion animals, which emerges from the dominant historical tradition and is increasingly familiar in everyday life as well as in work on companion animals in the social sciences. I label it the “utilization with welfare-safeguards” model, or, more gently worded, “seeking benefits while ensuring welfare.” Some of the “benefits” considered are complex ones (like guiding the sight impaired) and others simpler (like reducing stress or providing affection). I explore several problems involved in this approach (including the sometimes jarring inappropriateness of “benefit” terminology). I then offer an alternative account where the primary moral obligation toward companion animals is to develop, nurture, respect, and protect the loving relationship between them and their human companions, since thriving in such a relationship, I claim, has become part of their evolved telos (to use Bernard Rollin’s term) or evolved nature. This priority naturally leads to ensuring welfare, but the highly pro-active approach involved takes the obligation beyond standard welfare provision and “TLC” (“tender loving care”). Some implications of this position are explored.

The aim was to assess glycemia regulation in a blind diabetic patient after getting a guide dog. Glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) results of a blind patient before and after getting the guide dog were retrospectively collected. The paired t-test results yielded a two-tailed P value of 0.0925, a difference considered not statistically significant; the 95% confidence interval of this difference varied from -0.2494 to 1.889. An improvement of glycemia regulation was observed with the guide dog compared to previous glycemia regulation, however, the difference was not statistically significant. The moderate improvement could probably be attributed to the mobility of the blind person having a guide dog. Standard quality of life tests should be included in the evaluation of diabetic blind persons, especially the impact of a guide dog on glycemic control or other chronic complications of diabetes.

Dogs for the Disabled is an organisation recently established in the UK to provide trained assistance dogs to enhance the mobility and independence of people with physical disabilities. Fifty-seven recipients of a Dog for the Disabled (90% of all recipients) took part in a questionnaire survey to assess satisfaction with their dog, commitment to the dog's welfare, and other changes in their life brought about by obtaining their dog. Subjects reported an increased sense of social integration, enhancement to self-perceived health, and an affectionate, often supportive, relationship with their dog. Levels of satisfaction with the dog's work and the quality of the recipient–dog relationship were greater in subjects for whom the idea to have a dog was their own than in subjects who were influenced by other people to acquire a dog. These differences were small but statistically significant and may be a useful predictor in future applicants of the success of the working relationship.

Background

Having a service dog can help to increase independence and well-being among people with a disability or a chronic health condition. Although there has been an increasing use of service dogs among children and youth their impact has not yet been synthesized.

Objective

The purpose of this article was to conduct a systematic review assessing the impact of service dogs on children, youth and their families.

Methods

Systematic searches of seven international databases from 1985 to 2020 led to 29 studies meeting our inclusion criteria. Using a narrative synthesis review approach we analyzed these studies regarding their sample characteristics, methods, results and quality of evidence.

Results

There were 29 studies in our review that included 1121 children and youth (or parents representing them) that spanned across six countries over a 32-year period. Although the outcomes of the impact of service dogs varied across the studies, 23/29 of them reported an improvement in at least one of the following: physical health (i.e., diabetes management, seizure management, mobility), psychological health (i.e., quality of life, safety, behavior, stress, anxiety, self-confidence and independence), social well-being (i.e., social interactions, school and work) and dog-owner-bond. Children, youth and their parents also described several challenges in owning a service dog.

Conclusions

Our findings highlight that service dogs have potential to provide many benefits for children, youth and their families. Further research, including more rigorously designed studies, is needed to fully understand their impact.

When studying the roles and experiences of a service dog team, it is imperative that the animal-human bond be considered in this process. As the demand and acknowledgement of service dogs for mental health and veterans with PTSD continues to grow, it is important that academic research be conducted in order to not only maximize the benefits to the human and reduce the attitudinal and systemic barriers faced by the service dog team, but also to ensure the well-being of the service dog themselves. This major research paper will show that although individuals who share their lives with service dogs experience many mental health benefits as a result of their partnership, they have to face various attitudinal and systemic barriers in exchange for that benefit. The objectives of the study were to: engage with four persons who share their lives with service dogs in order to discuss and reflect upon the mental health impact of the animal-human bond, to engage significant others view of the mental health impact of service dogs, to explore systemic and attitudinal barriers faced by persons with service dogs, to generate and disseminate current knowledge regarding the mental health benefits of human-animal bonding in general and service dogs and human companions more specifically, and lastly to influence national service dog acceptance and policy. Through conducting a literature review as well as a qualitative phenomenological study, which interviewed human companions who share their lives with service dogs and their significant others, five themes regarding the animal-human bond and mental health were uncovered: that the journey to obtaining a service dog is a lengthy and sometimes complex process; that overall having a service dog for mental health difficulties or PTSD can be a positive experience; that the bond of the dog and human in the service dog Running head: AT BOTH ENDS OF THE LEASH 2 team is quite strong, that there are indeed mental health benefits to being partnered with a service dog; and lastly in order to receive the benefits of having a service dog the teams must face some attitudinal and systemic barriers in exchange. The paper ends with a discussion on the areas of recommendations regarding service dog research and policy in Canada.

The social and therapeutic benefits of pet ownership or simply interacting with a companion animal are well documented. In contrast, limited research exists on the effect of assistance animals on the quality of life for persons with disabilities. The specific aim of this exploratory study was to investigate the effect of partnering with an assistance dog on two sources of well-being: self-esteem and social connectedness. A multi-method design including pre-test/posttest surveys, interviews, and observations was used. The study consisted of 15 adults with cross-disabilities who were applicants to the assistance dog placement program at the National Education for Assistance Dogs Service in Princeton, MA.^ The findings of this study suggest that assistance dogs not only ameliorate functional limitations, but also enhance self-perceptions and relationships with others. An understanding of this effect enables human service workers and health care practitioners to engage more effectively with the disabled population.

Service dogs help persons with mobility impairments by retrieving items and performing other tasks. Hearing dogs alert persons with hearing impairments to environmental sounds. We conducted a pre-post, wait list-controlled pilot study to assess the impact of the dogs on the lives of recipients. Participants were recruited through two assistance dog training organizations and completed an initial questionnaire packet. The Experimental group completed another packet 6 months after receiving a dog. The Control group completed a second packet 6 months after the initial data collection. On average, dog recipients were very satisfied with their assistance dogs. Both service and hearing dog recipients reduced their dependence on other persons. Service dog recipients reduced hours of paid assistance. No other significant change occurred in various standardized outcome measures. Assistance dogs had a major positive impact on the lives of recipients. More appropriate measurement instruments are needed to capture the impact of these dogs.

Servicehunde helfen Menschen mit Mobilitätseinschränkungen, indem sie Gegenstände herbeibringen und andere Aufgaben ausführen. Signalhunde warnen Menschen mit Hörschäden vor Umweltgeräuschen. Eine Pilotstudie wurde zur Beurteilung der Auswirkungen von Hunden auf das Leben ihrer Besitzer durchgeführt. Die Teilnehmer wurden über zwei Ausbildungsorganisationen für Assistenzhunde rekrutiert und beantworteten ein ursprüngliches Fragebogen-Paket. Die Mitglieder der Versuchsgruppe beantworteten sechs Monate nach der Entgegennahme eines Hundes weitere Fragen. Die Kontrollgruppe beantwortete ein zweites Fragebogen-Paket sechs Monate nach der Erhebung mit dem ursprünglichen Paket. Durchschnittlich waren die Hunde-Empfänger sehr zufrieden mit ihren Assistenzhunden. Empfänger von sowohl Service- als auch Signalhunden reduzierten ihre Abhängigkeit von anderen Personen. Empfänger von Servicehunden reduzierten die Stunden bezahlter Assistenz. Es ergaben sich keine anderen Veränderungen in verschiedenen standardisierten Ergebnismessungen. Assistenzhunde hatten einen bedeutend positiven Einfluss auf das Leben der Empfänger. Es werden geeignetere Messinstrumente benötigt, um den Einfluss dieser Hunde zu erfassen.

Purpose: To qualitatively describe and compare the expectations and experiences of living with a mobility or medical service dog among those with a physical disability or chronic condition.

Materials and methods: A total of 64 participants living with a service dog and 27 on the waitlist to receive a service dog participated in a cross-sectional open-ended survey. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify themes and sub-themes.

Results: A total of 101 codes were summarized into themes of Physical Benefits, Psychosocial Benefits, and Drawbacks to having a service dog. Psychosocial benefits included the human–animal relationship as well as emotional, quality of life, and social benefits. Drawbacks included service dog care, public access and education, lifestyle adjustments, and dog behaviour. While participants on the waitlist were more likely to anticipate physical benefits of having a service dog, those with a service dog largely described psychosocial benefits. Findings also suggest that some drawbacks, such as public discrimination, may be unanticipated by the waitlist.

Conclusions: A comparison of expectations and experiences of service dog ownership highlights both the positive and negative aspects of the service dog–owner relationship and identifies potential aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist.

Implications for Rehabilitation
When asked about helpful and important aspects of having a service dog, 98% of service dog owners described the psychosocial benefits of their dog’s assistance and companionship.
The human–animal relationship was the most discussed psychosocial benefit from both current owners as well as those on the waitlist, demonstrating the unique strength of the service dog–owner bond in this population.
Those on the waitlist to receive a service dog did not anticipate as many drawbacks as current owners described. In particular, difficulties with public access and education as well as dog behaviour were commonly experienced, but not expected, drawbacks to service dog ownership.
Findings identify aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist, providing rehabilitation professionals with a basis for preparing those who may be considering incorporating a service dog into their lives.

This paper explores the effect of peoples' association with guide dogs on how they understand and feel about themselves and how they are regarded by those with whom they interact. The concepts of personal, collective, and social identity are used to situate the discussion. Of central importance is the way working with a guide dog shapes public interaction and how owner' self definitions and social identities are extended by being intimately involved in the owner—dog team.

To assess the effects of service dogs on health-related quality of life (HRQOL), we conducted a survey of 10 service dog owners using SF-36v2 (Medical Outcomes Study 36 Item Short-Form Health Survey Version 2.0) and compared it with a matched control group of people with physical disabilities who did not have service dogs but were eligible for one. The scores for mental health and role emotional of service dog owners were relatively high, and their mental component summary was higher than the general population norm. These results indicate that service dogs affect the mentality of their owners. The comparison with the control group indicated that service dogs alleviate the mental burden of daily activities, and subjectively improved the physical functioning of their owners. This study showed that service dogs have positive functional and mental effects on their disabled owners.

Um die Auswirkungen von Servicehunden auf die gesundheitsbezogene Lebensqualität zu beurteilen, wurde eine Untersuchung mit zehn Besitzers von Servicehunden durchgeführt und mit einer passenden Kontrollgruppe von Menschen mit körperlichen Behinderungen verglichen, die keinen Servicehund besaßen, dafür aber in Frage kamen. Die Wertungen für die psychische Gesundheit und die emotionale Rolle von Servicehund-Besitzern waren relativ hoch und die Zusammenfassung ihrer mentalen Komponenten waren höher als die generelle Norm der Bevölkerung. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Servicehunde die Mentalität ihrer Besitzer beeinflussen. Der Vergleich mit der Kontrollgruppe deutet darauf hin, dass Servicehunde die mentale Bürde alltäglicher Aktivitäten mildern und subjektiv die körperliche Funktionsfähigkeit ihrer Besitzer verbessern. Diese Studie zeigte, dass Servicehunde positive funktionale und mentale Auswirkungen auf ihre Besitzer haben.

People with disabilities and those working to train, provide and support assistance animals, along with their veterinary teams, would all benefit if they RETHINK their perspective and viewpoint, and roles when these very special relationships come to an end. The end of the relationship may be when the assistance animal must retire, must be redirected, or euthanized due to illness or cancer. The loss or separation at the end of an assistance animal's service marks a heavy loss for the disabled person. Emotions emerge when the assistance animal is sick or has developed cancer or is approaching the difficult period known as “end of life.” Anticipatory grief and heartbreak may be very difficult to manage and support. We can help ease the burden of decision making when euthanasia is needed for the assistance animal. If the disabled person takes on the good shepherd role and if the veterinary team emulates the minister or Mother Nature's role at the end of life or at the end of the working relationship, heartache may be lifted from both sides of the leash.

There is an apparent discrepancy between the actual number of guide dog owners and the proportion of visually impaired people who might benefit from a guide dog. This research aimed to provide an understanding of the reasons why many visually impaired people have not applied for a guide dog, the range of benefits offered by guide dogs, and how these might vary amongst different populations and under different circumstances. While previous research described a number of psychological and social benefits of assistant animal ownership, consistent with the companion animal literature, it also pointed to the importance of personal and social context on the impact and effectiveness of assistance animals. The study described here involved a telephone survey of over 800 visually impaired people and found that independence, confidence, companionship, increased and changed social interaction, as well as increased mobility, are commonly cited benefits of guide dog ownership. These psychological and social dimensions of owning a guide dog distinguish it from other mobility aids in its capacity to transform the lives of owners. However, as expected, demographic and contextual factors, such as gender, age, level of vision, and domestic circumstances, influence reasons for application and perceived benefits and drawbacks of guide dog ownership. The author argues that, while this research has emphasised the tremendous impact a guide dog can have, providing the most appropriate mobility aid for an individual's circumstances is the hallmark of effective rehabilitation service provision. The article also suggests ways in which perceived barriers to applying for a guide dog might be reduced.

19 Disadvantages of Assistance Dog Concept

The purpose of this study was to explore first time handlers’ experiences when working with an assistance dog (AD). Interviewees included seven first time AD handlers and 14 other individuals close to these handlers, including family members, carers and AD instructors. Semi-structured interviews were conducted six months and one year after each handler received their AD. Interview questions were informed by the Thriving Through Relationships theory of social support and previous interviews with the participants. Inductive content analysis corroborated previous findings regarding the benefits that ADs provide. In addition, four factors were revealed to substantially influence the challenges handlers experienced when learning to utilize their dog. These included the handlers’ medical conditions, cognitive ability and social environment, and dog-related factors. Organizations would benefit from considering these factors in their operational processes.

Emotional aspects of owning hearing dogs were explored in 38 hearing-dog owners and a control group of 23 prospective owners. Both groups listed companionship and hearing assistance as pleasant reasons for owning such dogs. Having a dog and personal independence were reasons mentioned only by prospective owners. Both groups mentioned travel complications as unpleasant problems. Owners referred to dogs' behavior problems significantly more often than did prospective owners who appeared to have unrealistic expectations that dog ownership would be problem-free.

Because of extensive media coverage, it is now widely believed that pets enhance their owners’ health, sense of psychological well-being, and longevity. But while some researchers have reported that positive effects accrue from interacting with animals, others have found that the health and happiness of pet owners is no better, and in some cases worse, than that of non–pet owners. I discuss some reasons why studies of the effects of pets on people have produced conflicting results, and I argue that the existence of a generalized “pet effect” on human mental and physical health is at present not a fact but an unsubstantiated hypothesis.

In this article the authors will investigate the relationship between dogs and their owners based on previous research done on attachment theory. This study will address the gap in research on separation anxiety in dog owners. An estimated 200 participants will complete a survey that was designed for the purpose of this study. This survey will ask questions regarding separation from their dog. Half of the participants will be pet dog owners and the other half will be service dog owners with a physical disability. It is expected that on average service dog owners will experience more separation anxiety than pet dog owners. These findings will suggest that the relationship between a service dog and its owner is more mutual than the relationship between a pet dog and its owner.

The term 'service animals' describes animals who render assistance of some sort to people with disabilities. This essay examines the boundaries of this concept of service animals, and also the blurriness around the edges, a blurriness which surfaces when we consider service animals in relation to companion animals, working animals, military animals, pack animals, harness animals, prison animals, and comfort animals. In some sense, all people have disabilities: none of us is perfect. There are a range of 'animal powers' that people do not have as keenly as other animals do. This sense of the animal strengths that humans lack combined with a sense of entitlement means that in our perennial disability we are inclined to harvest, or coopt, or borrow, or steal some aspect of those abilities, that able-ness, from other creatures.

This article examines the social experiences of Service Dog handlers using survey data from adult US Service Dog handlers (N = 482). The main research question examined is how disability visibility impacts the experiences of Service Dog-related discrimination. Analysis reveals that half of all Service Dog handlers report experiencing discrimination but those with invisible disabilities report experiencing significantly more discrimination. For those with invisible disabilities, the decision to use a Service Dog prevents them from ‘passing’ while at the same time opening them up to increased skepticism about the legitimacy of their disability.

The Guide Dogs for the Blind Association (GDBA) wished to evaluate its service to Guide Dog Owners (GDOs) undergoing a transition between guide dog partners. Therefore, a survey was carried out that was designed to gain an understanding of the end of a guide dog partnership from the owner's point of view.

Participants included 75 GDOs whose previous partnership had ended within the past year. Emotional distress was measured by the Goldberg General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) and a specially constructed Grief Rating Scale (GRS). Among the 59 GDOs who had no other reason for being upset at the time the partnership ended, high distress levels were found in those whose dog had died, been withdrawn from the partnership, or rehomed through GDBA, and low levels in those whose dog retired and continued to live with the owner or was placed in a home of the owner's choosing. Sixteen GDOs with other adverse events in their lives around the time the partnership ended recorded high levels of distress irrespective of why the dog stopped work or what happened to it thereafter.

Other evidence from the survey questionnaire suggested that the ending of a partnership is especially painful if the dog has had some special significance for the owner; if the partnership ends abruptly; if it is the end of the first partnership; or if there is a poor relationship with GDBA. Emotions experienced at the end of a partnership may be similar to those following the death of a pet, the loss of a close friend or relative, or the loss of sight.

Transitions between guide dog partners are a recurring consequence of guide dog mobility, and support as a partnership ends is beneficial in making a smooth transition. The issues raised in this study are relevant to assistance dog partnerships of all types. Methodological problems in designing a study for a vulnerable population are discussed.

Purpose: To qualitatively describe and compare the expectations and experiences of living with a mobility or medical service dog among those with a physical disability or chronic condition.

Materials and methods: A total of 64 participants living with a service dog and 27 on the waitlist to receive a service dog participated in a cross-sectional open-ended survey. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify themes and sub-themes.

Results: A total of 101 codes were summarized into themes of Physical Benefits, Psychosocial Benefits, and Drawbacks to having a service dog. Psychosocial benefits included the human–animal relationship as well as emotional, quality of life, and social benefits. Drawbacks included service dog care, public access and education, lifestyle adjustments, and dog behaviour. While participants on the waitlist were more likely to anticipate physical benefits of having a service dog, those with a service dog largely described psychosocial benefits. Findings also suggest that some drawbacks, such as public discrimination, may be unanticipated by the waitlist.

Conclusions: A comparison of expectations and experiences of service dog ownership highlights both the positive and negative aspects of the service dog–owner relationship and identifies potential aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist.

Implications for Rehabilitation
When asked about helpful and important aspects of having a service dog, 98% of service dog owners described the psychosocial benefits of their dog’s assistance and companionship.
The human–animal relationship was the most discussed psychosocial benefit from both current owners as well as those on the waitlist, demonstrating the unique strength of the service dog–owner bond in this population.
Those on the waitlist to receive a service dog did not anticipate as many drawbacks as current owners described. In particular, difficulties with public access and education as well as dog behaviour were commonly experienced, but not expected, drawbacks to service dog ownership.
Findings identify aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist, providing rehabilitation professionals with a basis for preparing those who may be considering incorporating a service dog into their lives.

This paper explores the effect of peoples' association with guide dogs on how they understand and feel about themselves and how they are regarded by those with whom they interact. The concepts of personal, collective, and social identity are used to situate the discussion. Of central importance is the way working with a guide dog shapes public interaction and how owner' self definitions and social identities are extended by being intimately involved in the owner—dog team.

In western countries, such as the United States and the United Kingdom, many people with disabilities benefit from the help their assistance dogs provide. In contrast, assistance dogs have not become widespread in Japan. This study explores the perspectives of Japanese people with disabilities, including the obstacles they have experienced when considering acquiring an assistance dog. A paper-based questionnaire was used to investigate the experiences of people with orthopedic, hearing, or visual disabilities. The results showed that a minority of participants with orthopedic (13.9%), hearing (31.6%), or visual (16.0%) disabilities hoped to live with an assistance dog. Younger people (18-59 years of age) hoped to have one more often than older people (over 60 years of age), which was related to their frequency of going out of the house. Younger people were more active in going outside regularly; older women were the least active. People with orthopedic disabilities were less active than those with other disabilities. Younger people were also more experienced in keeping dogs, and liked playing with them more. Younger women showed the greatest interest in living with an assistance dog, and older women the least interest; targeting information and encouragement to younger women may be most productive for placing dogs. Among people who did not hope to acquire an assistance dog, 6.1-11.6% of them felt sorry for dogs that are required to go through training, and 8.3-16.1% of them answered that they hated dogs. Our results indicated that Japanese are influenced by cultural, historical, and environmental contexts, and are not yet fully familiar with and accepting of the concepts of working dogs that are typical in the western countries. Most of the participants who hoped to live with an assistance dog had not actually applied for one. They gave the following reasons: there were inevitable negative aspects of living with dogs and sources of information, training systems, and policies by the governments and/or assistance dog organizations were cumbersome and inconvenient. The overall strategies to provide assistance dogs to people with disabilities need to be more accessible and accommodate the specific needs of the people who have disabilities.

20 Laws - Definitions - Standards

Assistance dogs are a very diverse group of working dogs that are trained to assist humans with different types of disabilities in their daily lives. Despite these dogs’ value for humankind, research on their welfare status, cognitive and behavioural capacities, selection criteria for the best fitting individuals, effective training and management practices, and genetic issues are so far lacking. This review highlights the need to address these topics and to promote progress in legal issues around assistance dogs. The topic of assistance dogs is approached comprehensively by outlining the current status of knowledge in three different dimensions: (1) the legal dimension, outlining important legal issues in the EU and Australia; (2) the welfare dimension; and (3) the dimension of research, covering assistance dog selection and training. For each of these three dimensions, we discuss potential approaches that can be implemented in the future in order to support assistance dog working performance, to protect the dogs’ welfare, and to improve our knowledge about them. Additionally, there remain many legal issues, such as the presence of assistance dogs in public areas, the resolution of which would benefit both the assistance dog and the owner with disability.

The aim of this study was to identify the outcomes expected and assessed by those providing service dogs to children with developmental disabilities. Seventeen registered service dog providers were invited to complete a mixed methods online survey. Five providers, who prepared dogs to work with a wide range of conditions and behaviours, mainly Asperger’s syndrome, autism and communication disorders, completed the survey. All five participants reported that they expected to see positive changes as a consequence of the service dog placement, in both the recipient child and their family, including improvements in attention span and language skills, as well as increased familial cohesion. Survey responses indicated that not all desired outcomes were routinely assessed. The range of assessments used were interviews, intake conversations, pre-placement questionnaires, child social dairies filled in by parents, follow up surveys after placement, and child observation by parents. No specifically named valid and reliable clinical or research measures were referred to, showing an emphasis on assessments from parents and service dog providers. It is not clear whether pre-intervention assessments are repeated systematically at follow-up, which could show robust intervention effects. There is scope for professionals in developmental disability to work with service dog providers to improve the evidence base in this field.

During the last 2 decades, service animals that are trained to help persons with disabilities have been making more frequent appearances in health care settings. After a long history of banning animals from these environments, many health care providers now endorse the presence of these animals in clinical and public settings. This APIC State of the Art Report (SOAR) examines the prevailing laws, scientific literature, and anecdotal data about service animals. The document gives an overview of the roles of service animals and their implications for health care providers. This SOAR will also suggest ways to develop prudent policies and practices for infection control and risk management.

In den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten sind im Gesundheitswesen immer häufiger Service-Tiere aufgetreten, die ausgebildet wurden, um Menschen mit Behinderung zu helfen. Nachdem Tiere für eine lange Zeit aus der medizinischen Versorgung verbannt wurden, befürworten heute viele Fürsorger die Anwesenheit von Tieren in der Öffentlichkeit und in Kliniken. Dieser Bericht beurteilt die vorherrschenden Gesetze, wissenschaftliche Literatur und anekdotische Daten über Service-Tiere. Zudem wird ein Überblick über die Rolle und die Bedeutung von Service-Tieren für Anbieter medizinischer Versorgung gegeben. Dieser Bericht schlägt außerdem Wege zur Entwicklung von umsichtigen Richtlinien und Verfahren für die Infektionskontrolle und das Risiko-Management vor.

When the function of a service, support, or assistance animal relates to a mental or emotional disability, a psychologist may be asked to write a letter for a patient seeking to live with the animal, usually a dog, or bring it onto an airplane or take it into a restaurant. Understanding the function of the dog will be important for the psychologist as there is no one-size-fits-all letter for all specialized dogs. This article analyzes the law and describes letters that helped patients and others that harmed them. The authors make recommendations about how to write such letters.

This study examines alleged discrimination towards people partnered with assistance dogs, as represented by Canadian newspapers. Doing so expands understanding of attitudes held toward assistance dogs and highlights everyday challenges faced by the people with whom they are partnered. Articles included for analysis were tabulated according to where instances of alleged discrimination happened, the type of assistance dog that was involved, and the reported reasons that were given as grounds for denying accommodation. Reported reasons were grouped further into five themes (health risks; ignorance; nuisance; cultural beliefs and/or religious convictions; and assault). Education programs, intersectoral collaboration, and policy changes are all recommended to tackle the challenges identified.

Companionship, emotional support, assistance for disabled family members, and general health benefits are just a few examples of why people choose to keep pets in their homes. This article explores the major legal issues that arise when people desire to keep companion animals in various types of housing. The Author examines the effects of federal, state, and local laws, as well as common contract clauses.

If an average person who lives with a dog were asked to describe the connection between “papers and dogs,” he or she may talk about American Kennel Club (AKC) registration.1 Some people might also reference dogs who are “paper trained.”2 However, individuals with disabilities, partnered with service or assistance dogs, may immediately think of the demands for documentation that they have been subject to when trying to enter businesses or rent housing.3 According to national surveys, the percentage of persons with disabilities in the United States is increasing.4 The number of persons with disabilities who choose to partner with service animals for assistance also appears to be growing.5 Even though the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) regulations regarding the permissible inquiries a public accommodation may make are straightforward, media reports and litigation, have made it clear that there is still widespread confusion.6 It is even more challenging for housing providers to determine their obligations under the Fair Housing Amendments Act (FHA).7 Although the Air Carrier Access Act (ACAA) regulations that became ...

Canadian news coverage is reflecting and shaping an evolution of thought about how we must publicly account for animals’ roles in the disability rights movement. Through a textual analysis of 26 news media articles published between 2012 and 2017, this research demonstrates that the media play a key role in reporting on discrimination, yet media narratives about service animals and their owners too often fail to capture the complexity of policies and laws that govern their lives. In Canada, there is widespread public confusion about the rights of disabled people and their service animals. This incertitude is relevant to both disability and animal oppression. This research identifies nine frames within the media narratives, as well as evaluating perspectives from critical animal studies in the news articles. These frames, which emerge in the media reports, in their descriptions of human and (less often) animal rights, illustrate public confusion surrounding these rights. The confusion is inevitable given the many laws in Canada that govern service animals. Thus, to give context to the news coverage, this article also surveys the legal protections for disabled people who use service animals in Canada, and suggests that until the news media understand the legalities surrounding service animals, they will not be well equipped to fulfil their role of informing the public. This is a lost opportunity in light of the media’s potential role as a pivotal tool to educate the public about disability and animal rights.

The boom in trained service animal use and access has transformed the lives of travelers with disabilities. As a result, tens of thousands of people in the United States and Canada enjoy travel options that were difficult or impossible just a few years ago. Henry Kisor and Christine Goodier provide a narrative guidebook full of essential information and salted with personal, hands-on stories of life on the road with service dogs and miniature horses. As the travel-savvy human companions of Trooper (Kisor's miniature schnauzer/poodle cross) and Raylene (Goodier's black Labrador), the authors share experiences from packing for your animal partner to widely varying legal protections to the animal-friendly rides at Disneyland. Chapters cover the specifics of air, rail, road, and cruise ship travel, while appendixes offer checklists, primers on import regulations and corporate policies, advice for emergencies, and a route-by-route guide to finding relief walks during North American train trips.Practical and long overdue, Traveling with Service Animals provides any human-animal partnership with a horizon-to-horizon handbook for exploring the world.

This ongoing column is dedicated to providing information to our readers on managing legal risks associated with medical practice. We invite questions from our readers. The answers are provided by PRMS, Inc. (www.prms.com), a manager of medical professional liability insurance programs with services that include risk management consultation, education and onsite risk management audits, and other resources to healthcare providers to help improve patient outcomes and reduce professional liability risk. The answers published in this column represent those of only one risk management consulting company. Other risk management consulting companies or insurance carriers may provide different advice, and readers should take this into consideration. The information in this column does not constitute legal advice. For legal advice, contact your personal attorney. Note: The information and recommendations in this article are applicable to physicians and other healthcare professionals so "clinician" is used to indicate all treatment team members.

This article examines the social experiences of Service Dog handlers using survey data from adult US Service Dog handlers (N = 482). The main research question examined is how disability visibility impacts the experiences of Service Dog-related discrimination. Analysis reveals that half of all Service Dog handlers report experiencing discrimination but those with invisible disabilities report experiencing significantly more discrimination. For those with invisible disabilities, the decision to use a Service Dog prevents them from ‘passing’ while at the same time opening them up to increased skepticism about the legitimacy of their disability.

The use of animals in various assistive, therapeutic, and emotional support roles has contributed to the uncoordinated expansion of labels used to distinguish these animals. To address the inconsistent vocabulary and confusion, this article proposes a concise taxonomy for classifying assistance animals. Several factors were identified to differentiate categories, including (1) whether the animal performs work or tasks related to an individual’s disability; (2) the typical level of skill required by the animal performing the work or task; (3) whether the animal is used by public service, military, or healthcare professionals; (4) whether training certifications or standards are available; and (5) the existence of legal public access protections for the animal and handler. Acknowledging that some category labels have already been widely accepted or codified, six functional categories were identified: (1) service animal; (2) public service animal; (3) therapy animal; (4) visitation animal; (5) sporting, recreational, or agricultural animal; and (6) support animal. This taxonomy provides a clear vocabulary for use by consumers, professionals working in the field, researchers, policy makers, and regulatory agencies.

This Research Topic aims to showcase some of the work being done to find a constructive way forward, expanding the effective and responsible employment of assistance dogs while managing the associated risks and conflicts. This includes supporting research into efficacy and best practices, promoting wider access to and for assistance dogs, and developing the support systems for handlers and their dogs.

Since 2005, service and therapy dogs have become more prevalent on campuses, whether utilized as part of an institutionwide effort to decrease anxiety in students during test‐taking seasons or for individuals with disabilities using therapy dogs regularly. Make sure that both your institution and your students are up to date on the responsibilities for both service animals and support animals on campus. However, the law defines service dogs and emotional support animals differently, and emotional support animals, therapy dogs and comfort animals are not necessarily covered by the laws and rulings that govern service dogs.

Japan learnt how to promote assistance dogs effectively by deliberating the issues and challenges that surrounded assistance dogs in the USA and Europe and the Act on Assistance Dogs for Physically Disabled Persons was issued in 2002. The aim of this paper is to provide information that may be useful for countries and areas that are seeking ways to regulate assistance dogs, especially in the context of the global problem in which dogs are falsely claimed to assist their partners. First, there is a description of the process through which Japan, where pet dogs have not been accepted in society, established the Act, which overcame the shortcomings of the previous situation. Second, it is shown the ways in which people living with assistance dogs have gained the right to have their dogs accompany them in public. Third, the current challenges faced by people with assistance dogs are documented. Finally, pictures of an example of an assistance dog certificate and of an assistance dog sign reveal how far the regulation of assistance dogs is achieved in Japan.

This case study evaluates the American’s with Disabilities Act requirements regarding service animal use. The first author was retained as a defense expert in a case where a woman placed her small dog on a table at a restaurant and when she was asked to sit at an exterior table, she sued the restaurant on the basis of disability discrimination. This paper evaluates the relevant facts of the case and clarifies when an animal qualifies as a service animal, and when a dog is just a dog.

This paper probes the distinction between the so-called emotional support animals (ESAs), a term that is specific to the USA and that has recently been the subject of significant media attention, and service animals. The attention devoted to ESAs has largely taken on the form of jokes and critical comments related to the absurdity of the ‘political correctness’ that makes it possible for pigs to fly in the passenger cabin of airplanes and llamas to accompany their owners on trips to the supermarket. Much criticism is meted out, also from within the disability community, against animal guardians who try to ‘pass their animals off’ as service dogs and ESAs, with a call for the establishment of clear-cut criteria for the definition of ESAs and service animals. The paper’s methodology is an analysis of the media accounts of legitimate and illegitimate service animals; an analysis that reveals how the boundary between legitimate and illegitimate is constructed through the building blocks of these stories. ESAs are something of a limit case that points to the cultural paradoxes that govern Americans’ relationships with companion animals and with concepts of disability. The paper also argues that the insistence on establishing firm boundaries between ‘legitimate’ service animals and ESAs actually fosters a politics of suspicion, which can easily slip into suspicion directed at the human handlers of the animals.

Psychiatric service dogs (PSDs) and emotional support animals (ESAs) play important roles for people with mental disabilities and their use is increasing dramatically in the US. However, there is little research on the effects of these newer types of working animals compared to the traditional service dogs, such as guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs. In addition, the increased use of inadequately trained service dogs and ESAs makes it difficult for people to simply appreciate the benefits of these animals and even people with disabilities who are accompanied by appropriate animals can be questioned and viewed with doubt. Although there are challenges and more research needs to be conducted on PSDs and ESAs, the reported benefits of companion animals, especially for vulnerable people, extend to PSDs and ESAs. Some studies on PSDs and traditional service dogs (SDs) have shown that both having dogs trained to perform tasks and providing them public access increase the benefits experienced by people living with such dogs. The US laws for people with disabilities that provide access to people with their animals to alleviate mental symptoms are revolutionary in the world. By providing guidance, mental health professionals can play a central role in improving the lives of people who are highly likely to benefit from these animals.

Dogs are filling a growing number of roles supporting people with various disabilities, leading to a chaotic situation in the U.S. Although the federal laws allow public access with working dogs only for people with disabilities, no governmental enforcement or management system for such dogs exists. Furthermore, there is no substantive way to confirm whether the dog is an adequately trained assistance dog or not, as neither the handlers nor the dogs are required to carry any particular certification or identification. Therefore, unqualified assistance dogs and incidents such as dog bites by assistance dogs sometimes are problems in the U.S. A governmental oversight system could reduce problems, but no information is available about the current uses of assistance dogs in the U.S. We aimed to investigate the current demographics of registered assistance dogs and the evolving patterns in uses of dogs during 1999–2012 in California. We acquired data on assistance dogs registered by animal control facilities throughout California. We used descriptive statistics to describe the uses of these assistance dogs. The number of assistance dogs sharply increased, especially service dogs, in the past decade. Dogs with small body sizes, and new types of service dogs, such as service dogs for psychiatric and medical assistance, strongly contributed to the increase. The Assistance Dog Identification tags sometimes were mistakenly issued to dogs not fitting the definition of assistance dogs under the law, such as emotional support animals and some cats; this reveals errors in the California governmental registering system. Seemingly inappropriate dogs also were registered, such as those registered for the first time at older than 10 years of age. This study reveals a prevalence of misuse and misunderstanding of regulations and legislation on assistance dogs in California.

21 Animal-Computer Interactions (ACI) and other technologies

These studies are part of a project aiming to reveal relevant aspects of human–dog interactions, which could serve as a model to design successful human-robot interactions. Presently there are no successfully commercialized assistance robots, however, assistance dogs work efficiently as partners for persons with disabilities. In Study 1, we analyzed the cooperation of 32 assistance dog–owner dyads performing a carrying task. We revealed typical behavior sequences and also differences depending on the dyads' experiences and on whether the owner was a wheelchair user. In Study 2, we investigated dogs' responses to unforeseen difficulties during a retrieving task in two contexts. Dogs displayed specific communicative and displacement behaviors, and a strong commitment to execute the insoluble task. Questionnaire data from Study 3 confirmed that these behaviors could successfully attenuate owners' disappointment. Although owners anticipated the technical competence of future assistance robots to be moderate/high, they could not imagine robots as emotional companions, which negatively affected their acceptance ratings of future robotic assistants. We propose that assistance dogs' cooperative behaviors and problem solving strategies should inspire the development of the relevant functions and social behaviors of assistance robots with limited manual and verbal skills.

Navigation robots have the potential to overcome some of the limitations of traditional navigation aids for blind people, specially in unfamiliar environments. In this paper, we present the design of CaBot (Carry-on roBot), an autonomous suitcase-shaped navigation robot that is able to guide blind users to a destination while avoiding obstacles on their path. We conducted a user study where ten blind users evaluated specific functionalities of CaBot, such as a vibro-tactile handle to convey directional feedback; experimented to find their comfortable walking speed; and performed navigation tasks to provide feedback about their overall experience. We found that CaBot's performance highly exceeded users' expectations, who often compared it to navigating with a guide dog or sighted guide. Users' high confidence, sense of safety, and trust on CaBot poses autonomous navigation robots as a promising solution to increase the mobility and independence of blind people, in particular in unfamiliar environments.

Working dogs have improved the lives of thousands of people throughout history. However, communication between human and canine partners is currently limited. The main goal of the FIDO project is to research fundamental aspects of wearable technologies to support communication between working dogs and their handlers. In this study, the FIDO team investigated on-body interfaces for dogs in the form of wearable technology integrated into assistance dog vests. We created five different sensors that dogs could activate based on natural dog behaviors such as biting, tugging, and nose touches. We then tested the sensors on-body with eight dogs previously trained for a variety of occupations and compared their effectiveness in several dimensions. We were able to demonstrate that it is possible to create wearable sensors that dogs can reliably activate on command, and to determine cognitive and physical factors that affect dogs’ success with body–worn interaction technology.

Periodic monitoring of the training of prospective guide dogs for the blind was evaluated to determine if the monitoring is useful in gauging the potential suitability of guide dogs. We selected 8 dogs as test dogs on the basis of their medical check and pretraining evaluation. Beginning with day 1 of training, we monitored their progress every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. The evaluation was designed to assess task performance, stress, excitement, and concentration for the task. We set the test course in a residential district, but in an area that was not used for daily training. In some variables, such as tail position, duration of distraction, and effect of the training break, there were some differences between a dog that successfully completed guide training and dogs that did not.

The number of stress reactions was significantly different between successful and unsuccessful dogs. Only 1 dog out of the 8 observed became a guide dog; however, the present study suggests that it is possible to detect some traits in the early stages of training that determine whether or not a dog successfully becomes a guide dog.

This paper explores the intersection of assistance dog welfare and intelligent systems with a technological intervention in the form of an emergency canine alert system. We make the case that assistance dog welfare can be affected by the welfare of their human handlers, and examine the need for a canine alert system that enables the dog to take control over a potentially distressing situation thus improving assistance dog welfare. We focus on one specific subset of assistance dogs, the Diabetes Alert Dog, who are trained to warn their diabetic handlers of dangerously low or high blood sugar levels.

A guide dog robot system for visually impaired often needs to process many kinds of information, such as image, voice and other sensor information. Information processing methods based on deep neural network can achieve better results. However, it requires expensive computing and communication resources to meet the real-time requirement. Fog computing has emerged as a promising solution for applications that are data-intensive and delay-sensitive. We propose a fog computing framework named PEN (Phone + Embedded board + Neural compute stick) for the guide dog robot system. The robot’s functions in PEN are wrapped as services and deployed on the appropriate devices. Services are combined as an application in a visual programming language environment. Neural compute stick accelerates image processing speed at low power consumption. A simulation environment and a prototype are built on the framework. The simulated guide dog system is developed for operating in a miniature environment, including a small robot dog, a small wheelchair, model cars, traffic lights, and traffic blockage. The prototype is a full-sized portable guide system that can be used by a visually impaired person in a real environment. Simulation and experiments show that the framework can meet the functional and performance requirements for implementing the guide systems for visually impaired.

Bibliography - Assistance Dogs

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15 Health of Assistance Dogs

16 Welfare of Assistance Dogs

17 History of Assistance Dogs

18 Benefits of Assistance Dogs Concept

19 Disadvantages of Assistance Dog Concept

20 Laws - Definitions - Standards

21 Animal-Computer Interactions (ACI) and other technologies