Bibliography - Assistance Dogs
Collection 1
Are we missing something? Please email Tiamat Warda with article suggestions at [email protected].
1 Assistance Dogs in general
Purpose: First-time assistance dog handlers experience a profound life change when they bring an assistance dog into their home. Therefore, this article investigates the broad context of handlers’ lived experiences prior to and throughout the first year after acquiring an assistance dog.
Materials and methods: To understand holistic experiences better, semi-structured interviews were conducted with first-time assistance dog handlers (n = 7), parents (n = 7), assistance dog instructors (n = 6), carers/other individuals (n = 3) at four time points: before an individual received an assistance dog, and then at three further times for up to one year after they received the assistance dog.
Results: Inductive content analysis revealed that four main contextual factors (societal, social support, environmental and personal) influenced the lived experience of working with an assistance dog. Many of these factors were outside of the handler and the assistance dog organization’s control, and they were shown to cause many challenges for handlers.
Conclusion: These factors must, therefore, be taken into consideration when organizations make decisions about placing an assistance dog.
- IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION
Societal influences can both hinder and facilitate the benefits first-time handlers receive with their assistance dog in public.
Support from others is important to successfully integrate an assistance dog into a first-time handler’s life.
A handler’s level of environmental control can influence their experiences with their assistance dog.
Personal factors such as a handler’s experience of disability and motivation or resilience can impact experiences with their assistance dog.
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe, qualitatively the use of service dogs by persons with physical disabilities and the meaning of this experience. METHOD: Five service dog owners were observed and interviewed on multiple occasions through an ethnographic approach. RESULTS: Identified themes were increased community participation, "closer than family" increased social contact, personal skill development, having fun, responsibility, adjustment, challenges, independence, "someone to watch over me," and "feel like an able-bodied person." CONCLUSION: Service dogs are used to enhance independence in occupational performance areas and contribute to improvements in psychosocial functioning. Given these benefits, service dogs could be viewed as a form of assistive technology that occupational therapists may want to consider as an alternative to traditional devices for some clients.
Diese Studie hat die Nutzung von Assistenzhunden und ihre Bedeutung für Menschen mit physischen Behinderungen untersucht. Zu diesem Zweck wurden fünf Besitzer von Assistenzhunden zu zahlreichen Anlässen beobachtet und befragt. Zu den Ergebnissen gehörten erhöhte Beteiligung an der Gemeinschaft, verstärkter sozialer Kontakt, Entwicklung eigener Fähigkeiten, Spaß, Verantwortlichkeit, Anpassung, Herausforderung, Unabhängigkeit sowie das Gefühl, dass jemand aufpasst und dass man sich körperlich-gesund fühlt. Aus den Antworten lässt sich schließen, dass Assistenzhunde genutzt werden, um Unabhängigkeit in zahlreichen Lebensbereichen zu fördern und das psychosoziale Befinden zu verbessern. Mit diesen Vorteilen könnten Assistenzhunde als eine Form der assistiven Technologie agieren, die viele Therapeuten als Alternative für traditionelle Mittel vorschlagen könnten.
Assistance dogs are trained to support persons living with disability and mitigate limitations that hinder their participation in everyday activities. Despite participation being a frequent challenge for people with disabilities, evidence linking assistance dog provision to improved participation outcomes is underdeveloped. This scoping review aimed to improve understanding by mapping the participation outcomes claimed in research on assistance dogs using the International Classification of Functioning (ICF), Disability and Health framework.
Introduction:
Assistance dogs are often written about and featured in human interest pieces that focus on the amazing talents of the dog. Those studies that do exist focus on the positive elements of partnership. The purpose of this study was twofold: to add a realistic assessment of positive and negative aspects of assistance dog partnership, and to provide the training agency data to back up anecdotal evidence that recipient’s lives have been changed by their dogs.
Methods:
A selected number of disabled people who had been partnered with assistance dogs for over a year participated in interviews. Interviews were performed face-to-face and over the telephone. The interview tool was a predominantly scale-based questionnaire with several open ended questions to capture both qualitative and quantitative information from participants concerning the life changes they have experienced since receiving their dog.
Results:
The most challenging aspect of owning an assistance dog was the physical act of caring for the dog. The rewarding aspect of the partnership was independence - both reduced reliance on human caregivers and increased ability to stay home or go out alone - as the major benefit. Secondarily, the respondents reported the emotional aspects of their relationship with their dog (having a constant companion and someone to love them unconditionally) as a strong positive element of partnership.
Respondent satisfaction was high, both with dog ownership and with the agency. Almost unanimously, interviewees agreed they would get another dog in the future and recommend this agency to friends seeking an assistance dog.
In vielen Werken von menschlichem Interesse wird über Assistenzhunde und ihre erstaunlichen Talente berichtet. Existierende Studien konzentrieren sich auf die positiven Elemente der Partnerschaft. Diese Studie hatte zwei Ziele: eine realistische Einschätzung über die positiven und negativen Aspekte der Partnerschaft mit einem Assistenzhund zu geben und die anekdotischen Belege, dass das Leben der Menschen durch ihren Hund verbessert wurde, mit Daten für die Ausbildungsagentur zu unterstützen.
Zu diesem Zweck wurden Menschen mit Behinderung interviewt, die seit mehr als einem Jahr einen Assistenzhund besaßen. Die Befragungen wurden persönlich oder per Telefon durchgeführt. Die Fragen basierten überwiegend auf Skalen mit einigen offenen Fragen, um sowohl qualitative als auch quantitative Informationen der Patienten bezüglich der Lebensveränderungen durch ihren Assistenzhund zu erfahren.
Die größte Herausforderung beim Besitzen eines Assistenzhundes war die körperliche Betätigung, um für den Hund zu sorgen. Der größte Vorteil der Partnerschaft war Unabhängigkeit, sowohl durch reduziertes Vertrauen in menschliche Pflegekräfte als auch durch die verbesserten Möglichkeiten, zuhause zu bleiben oder alleine nach draußen zu gehen. Zudem berichteten die Teilnehmer über die positiven emotionalen Auswirkungen der Partnerschaft (jemanden zu haben, der sie stetig begleitet und bedingungslos liebt). Die Zufriedenheit der Teilnehmer war hoch, sowohl im Bezug auf den Besitz eines Assistenzhundes als auch im Bezug auf die Agentur. Fast ausnahmslos gaben sie an, dass sie zukünftig noch einen Hund annehmen würden und die Agentur an Freunde, die einen Assistenzhund suchen, weiterempfehlen würden.
The use of assistance dogs has a long and honorable history. Guide dogs have been held in high regard since the 1930s and since the 1980s, assistance dogs have rapidly expanded to fill new roles, particularly in the U.S. (1). Alongside these burgeoning possibilities for canine assistance, the social and regulatory environment for these dogs has become increasingly complex and some areas of confusion and social conflict have emerged (2). The nomenclature used in describing these dogs adds confusion: at the worldwide agency Assistance Dogs International (ADI), the inclusive term used is assistance dogs for guide, hearing and service (all other assisting roles, including for autism or psychiatric disabilities) dogs (3). In contrast, the U.S. American Disabilities Act uses the inclusive term service dogs (4).
Veterinarians and social scientists have special responsibilities to work together to support people with disabilities and their assistance dogs. This requires a seamless integration of animal and human medicine that includes a full range of service providers. This “One Health” world is more often aspirational than actual, and scientists and professionals are critical to bridging this gap.
Many highly capable agencies support people with disabilities, provide and support service animals, and advocate for them. However, it is researchers, veterinarians, and human health providers that make the connections between domains that are needed to allow the assistance-dog handlers to carry out their everyday activities with the ease and access that is their right.
This Research Topic aims to showcase some of the work being done to find a constructive way forward, expanding the effective and responsible employment of assistance dogs while managing the associated risks and conflicts. This includes supporting research into efficacy and best practices, promoting wider access to and for assistance dogs, and developing the support systems for handlers and their dogs.
Purpose: To qualitatively describe and compare the expectations and experiences of living with a mobility or medical service dog among those with a physical disability or chronic condition.
Materials and methods: A total of 64 participants living with a service dog and 27 on the waitlist to receive a service dog participated in a cross-sectional open-ended survey. Qualitative content analysis was used to identify themes and sub-themes.
Results: A total of 101 codes were summarized into themes of Physical Benefits, Psychosocial Benefits, and Drawbacks to having a service dog. Psychosocial benefits included the human–animal relationship as well as emotional, quality of life, and social benefits. Drawbacks included service dog care, public access and education, lifestyle adjustments, and dog behaviour. While participants on the waitlist were more likely to anticipate physical benefits of having a service dog, those with a service dog largely described psychosocial benefits. Findings also suggest that some drawbacks, such as public discrimination, may be unanticipated by the waitlist.
Conclusions: A comparison of expectations and experiences of service dog ownership highlights both the positive and negative aspects of the service dog–owner relationship and identifies potential aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist.
- Implications for Rehabilitation
When asked about helpful and important aspects of having a service dog, 98% of service dog owners described the psychosocial benefits of their dog’s assistance and companionship.
The human–animal relationship was the most discussed psychosocial benefit from both current owners as well as those on the waitlist, demonstrating the unique strength of the service dog–owner bond in this population.
Those on the waitlist to receive a service dog did not anticipate as many drawbacks as current owners described. In particular, difficulties with public access and education as well as dog behaviour were commonly experienced, but not expected, drawbacks to service dog ownership.
Findings identify aspects of having a service dog that may be unanticipated or overestimated by those on the waitlist, providing rehabilitation professionals with a basis for preparing those who may be considering incorporating a service dog into their lives.
The purpose of this project was to assess and observe the matching process and to identify the role of an occupational therapist in aiding the evaluation process with potential handlers and assistance dogs. Three sites were explored within California: Canine Support Teams, Canine Companions for Independence, and Guide Dogs for the Blind. Interviews were conducted with twenty-five participants about roles, routines, physical environment, need for an assistance dog, and additional support.
Key findings from this project revealed a need for occupational therapy within the evaluation process and two-week team training. Therapists could aid with adapting learning material, addressing performance patterns, conducting home evaluations, and educating staff about a range of clients who have different disabilities.
Occupational therapists have recognized the benefits that service dogs can provide people with disabilities. There are many anecdotal publications extolling the benefits of working with service dogs, but few rigorous studies exist to provide the evidence of the usefulness of this type of assistive technology option. This systematic review evaluates the published research that supports the use of service dogs for people with mobility-related physical disabilities.
Articles were identified by computerized search of PubMed, CINAHL, PsycINFO, OT Seeker, the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, SportDiscus, Education Research Complete, Public Administration Abstracts, Web of Knowledge and Academic Search Premier databases with no date range specified. The keywords used in the search included disabled persons, assistance dogs or service dogs and mobility impairments. The reference lists of the research papers were checked as was the personal citation database of the lead author. Twelve studies met the inclusion criteria and whereas the findings are promising, they are inconclusive and limited because of the level of evidence, which included one Level I, six Level III, four Level IV and one Level V. All of the studies reviewed had research design quality concerns including small participant sizes, poor descriptions of the interventions, outcome measures with minimal psychometrics and lack of power calculations. Findings indicated three major themes including social/participation, functional and psychological outcomes; all of which are areas in the occupational therapy scope of practice. Occupational therapists may play a critical role in referral, assessment, assisting clients and consulting with training organizations before, during and after the service dog placement process. In order for health care professionals to have confidence in recommending this type of assistive technology, the evidence to support such decisions must be strengthened. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Therapeuten haben die Vorteile erkannt, die Servicehunde Menschen mit Behinderungen bieten können. Es gibt viele anekdotische Veröffentlichungen, die die Vorteile der Arbeit mit einem Servicehund anpreisen, aber es existieren wenige gründliche Studien, die Beweise für die Nützlichkeit dieser Form der Hilfstechnologie liefern. Diese systematische Untersuchung bewertet die veröffentlichte Forschung, die die Nutzung von Servicehunden für Menschen mit mobilitätseinschränkenden körperlichen Behinderungen unterstützt. Zu diesem Zweck wurden Artikel aus zahlreichen Datenbanken ohne spezielle Zeitspanne identifiziert. Zu den gesuchten Schlüsselwörtern gehörten Menschen mit Behinderung, Assistenzhunde oder Servicehunde und Mobilitätseinschränkungen. Das Literaturverzeichnisse der Forschungsarbeiten und die persönliche Zitationsdatenbank der leitenden Autoren wurden überprüft. Zwölf Studien erfüllten die Aufnahmekriterien. Die Befunde waren vielversprechend, aber nicht beweiskräftig und aufgrund des Beweisniveaus limitiert. Alle untersuchten Studien hatten Defizite bei der Versuchsgestaltung, unter anderem durch geringe Teilnehmerzahlen, schlechte Beschreibungen der Interventionen, Ergebnismessungen mit minimaler Psychometrie und einem Mangel an Kraftberechnungen. Die Befunde zeigten drei Hauptthemen, einschließlich sozialer Partizipation, funktionaler und psychologischer Ergebnissen, alle davon sind Bereiche der ergotherapeutischen Praxis. Ergotherapeuten könnten vor, während und nach dem Vermittlungsprozess der Servicehunde eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Verweisung, Bewertung, Begleitung von Klienten und beim Konsultieren von Ausbildungsorganisationen einnehmen. Damit medizinische Fachkräfte die Zuversicht haben, diese Form der Hilfstechnologie zu empfehlen, müssen die Belege, die solche Entscheidungen unterstützen, verstärkt werden.
2 Assistance Dog-Handler Interactions
OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to describe, qualitatively the use of service dogs by persons with physical disabilities and the meaning of this experience. METHOD: Five service dog owners were observed and interviewed on multiple occasions through an ethnographic approach. RESULTS: Identified themes were increased community participation, "closer than family" increased social contact, personal skill development, having fun, responsibility, adjustment, challenges, independence, "someone to watch over me," and "feel like an able-bodied person." CONCLUSION: Service dogs are used to enhance independence in occupational performance areas and contribute to improvements in psychosocial functioning. Given these benefits, service dogs could be viewed as a form of assistive technology that occupational therapists may want to consider as an alternative to traditional devices for some clients.
Diese Studie hat die Nutzung von Assistenzhunden und ihre Bedeutung für Menschen mit physischen Behinderungen untersucht. Zu diesem Zweck wurden fünf Besitzer von Assistenzhunden zu zahlreichen Anlässen beobachtet und befragt. Zu den Ergebnissen gehörten erhöhte Beteiligung an der Gemeinschaft, verstärkter sozialer Kontakt, Entwicklung eigener Fähigkeiten, Spaß, Verantwortlichkeit, Anpassung, Herausforderung, Unabhängigkeit sowie das Gefühl, dass jemand aufpasst und dass man sich körperlich-gesund fühlt. Aus den Antworten lässt sich schließen, dass Assistenzhunde genutzt werden, um Unabhängigkeit in zahlreichen Lebensbereichen zu fördern und das psychosoziale Befinden zu verbessern. Mit diesen Vorteilen könnten Assistenzhunde als eine Form der assistiven Technologie agieren, die viele Therapeuten als Alternative für traditionelle Mittel vorschlagen könnten.
OBJECTIVE. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of partnerships between people with disabilities and service dogs on functional performance and social interaction.
METHOD. A single-subject, alternating treatment design was used. The participants were 3 women with mobility challenges who owned service dogs. For each participant, time and perceived amount of effort for two tasks were measured for functional performance. Interaction and satisfaction levels were measured for social interactions.
RESULTS. Primary findings were that service dog partnerships decreased performance time for four of the six tasks, decreased effort for five of the six tasks, increased social interactions for 2 of the participants, and increased levels of satisfaction with social interactions for all participants.
CONCLUSION. For adult women with mobility challenges, service dog partnerships may contribute to energy conservation through decreased time and effort required to complete some tasks and may increase social interactions.
Background: With increasing frequency, service dogs are being placed with children with developmental disabilities (DDs). Occupational therapists and other professionals have advocated for the therapeutic use of service dog partnerships to facilitate greater independence and quality of life. There are no studies that examine service dog intervention with adolescents.
Method: This study focused on the effects of partnerships between service dogs and three participant dyads, each including an adolescent with DDs and a parent. A single-subject, alternating treatment design was used to compare the effects of two conditions (service dog present or not present). The effects were examined for adolescents’ anxiety behaviors during transitions and during grocery store shopping, for social interactions during grocery store shopping, and for parents’ reported levels of stress.
Results: Findings were that service dog partnerships reduced the presence of anxiety behaviors during transitions for one of the three adolescents; reduced the presence of anxiety behaviors during grocery store visits for two of the three adolescents; increased social interactions for all three of the participant dyads; and had no meaningful impact on self-reported parental stress level.
Conclusion: For adolescents with DDs, professionals may want to consider service dog partnerships to decrease anxiety behaviors and increase social interactions in the community.
Purpose: Companion dogs can provide psychosocial benefits for their owners. Assistance dogs reportedly provide similar benefits, while also performing specific tasks. These psychosocial benefits may increase their handler’s quality of life and ability to thrive – defined as having the ability to grow and flourish, especially in the face of adversity. Currently, no studies compare assistance dogs’ effectiveness to companion dogs’ in assisting their handler/owner to thrive, an important comparison given that companion dogs are typically less expensive to acquire, and more readily available.
Methods: The Thriving Through Relationships (TTR) theory was used to inform the development of a human-dog relationship survey, which was distributed through assistance dog organizations and to the general public.
Results: Participants were divided into three groups: persons with a disability who had an assistance dog (n = 165), persons with a disability who had a companion dog (n = 249) and persons with no disability who had a companion dog (n = 198). Perceived overall support was statistically different between the three groups, F (2, 394) = 14.45, p < .001. Assistance dog handlers reported receiving significantly higher levels of support than companion dog owners with disabilities (p < .01) or without disabilities (p < .001). In fact, assistance dogs were reported to provide more support (p < .017) than companion dogs on nine out of ten separate indicators of thriving.
Conclusion: Overall, dogs are perceived to provide support that improves their handler/owner’s ability to thrive. Most importantly, however, assistance dogs may provide greater support than companion dogs for persons with a disability and, therefore, may be worth the additional time and financial cost.
- Implications for Rehabilitation
Assistance dogs could assist rehabilitation by improving coping skills, especially during times of adversity, as demonstrated through the ten indicators of thriving.
Assistance dogs and companion dogs are not inter-changeable when it comes to providing support for individuals with a disability.
Purpose: As the popularity of using dogs to assist individuals with disability grows, there is a need for increased understanding of assistance dog handlers’ experiences of living and working with their dog. This is particularly pertinent to first-time handlers and during the initial placement period, where the handler and assistance dog, and the relationship forming between them, may be extremely vulnerable. The aim of this study was to better understand first-time assistance dog handlers’ experience of the placement period, especially any challenges that they experience.
Materials and methods: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with two youth and five adult handlers, and one parent of a young handler, recruited from three Australian assistance dog organizations. Interviews were conducted 1 month following the initial acquisition of an assistance dog. Meleis’ transitions theory was used to develop a better understanding of the transition process for first-time handlers.
Results: Inductive content analysis identified various challenges that first-time handlers experience throughout the transition period. These included: the initial response to living with the assistance dog; renegotiating relationships and social interactions; and, adjusting expectations regarding the assistance dog’s behavior and capabilities.
Conclusion: First-time handler experiences indicate a need for assistance dog organizations to develop initiatives to further assist their handlers through a smooth transition into assistance dog ownership.
- Implications for rehabilitation
Integrating an assistance dog into a first-time handler’s life is a long process full of challenges.
Provider organizations and other support members markedly impact the ease of transitioning an assistance dog into a handler’s life.
Organizations should be aware of the role they have and employ strategies to create as smooth a transition as possible.
Support from other support members is crucial to ease the challenges experienced.
Purpose: First-time assistance dog handlers experience a profound life change when they bring an assistance dog into their home. Therefore, this article investigates the broad context of handlers’ lived experiences prior to and throughout the first year after acquiring an assistance dog.
Materials and methods: To understand holistic experiences better, semi-structured interviews were conducted with first-time assistance dog handlers (n = 7), parents (n = 7), assistance dog instructors (n = 6), carers/other individuals (n = 3) at four time points: before an individual received an assistance dog, and then at three further times for up to one year after they received the assistance dog.
Results: Inductive content analysis revealed that four main contextual factors (societal, social support, environmental and personal) influenced the lived experience of working with an assistance dog. Many of these factors were outside of the handler and the assistance dog organization’s control, and they were shown to cause many challenges for handlers.
Conclusion: These factors must, therefore, be taken into consideration when organizations make decisions about placing an assistance dog.
- IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION
Societal influences can both hinder and facilitate the benefits first-time handlers receive with their assistance dog in public.
Support from others is important to successfully integrate an assistance dog into a first-time handler’s life.
A handler’s level of environmental control can influence their experiences with their assistance dog.
Personal factors such as a handler’s experience of disability and motivation or resilience can impact experiences with their assistance dog.
Introduction:
In spite of the vast amount of literature on pet therapy and dog companionship, limited studies exist on older adults with vision loss and the experience of owning a dog guide. The purpose of this study is to explore the facilitators and barriers of first-time ownership and utilization of a dog guide as experienced by older adults with vision loss.
Methods:
Data were gathered among seven participants using open-ended semistructured telephone interviews. Participants described their experiences related to owning a dog guide. Using phenomenological analysis, themes were extracted from verbatim transcriptions.
Results:
Through constant comparison methods, five themes emerged: increased responsibilities for new dog guide owners, changes in habits and routines, quick human–dog guide bonding, increase in community integration, and enhancement of autonomy through dog guide ownership.
Discussion:
The study results suggest that obtaining a dog guide increased the older adults with vision loss everyday engagement in community activities. The increased confidence in independent mobility may have led participants to engage in activities in unfamiliar environments, thus improving their autonomy, self-esteem, and physical abilities. These changes resulted in increased feelings of independence and freedom for the older adults with vision loss. Participants also revealed positive changes in their daily habits. Due to the increased physical ability and motivation needed to complete activities, making adjustments to owning a dog guide became easier. Furthermore, a human–dog guide bond was prevalent among all seven participants.
Background
Individuals with severe disability often require personal assistance and help from informal caregivers, in addition to conventional health care. The utilization of assistance dogs may decrease the need for health and social care and increase the independence of these individuals. Service and hearing dogs are trained to assist specific individuals and can be specialized to meet individual needs. The aim of this study was to describe and explore potential consequences for health-related quality of life, well-being and activity level, of having a certified service or hearing dog.
Methods
A longitudinal interventional study with a pre-post design was conducted. At inclusion, all participants in the study had a regular (untrained) companion dog. Data were collected before training of the dog started and three months after certification of the dog. Health-related quality of life was assessed with EQ-5D-3L, EQ-VAS and RAND-36. Well-being was measured with WHO-5 and self-esteem with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. In addition, questions were asked about physical activity and time spent away from home and on social activities. Subgroups were analyzed for physical service and diabetes alert dogs.
Results
Fifty-five owner-and-dog pairs completed the study (30 physical service dogs, 20 diabetes alert dogs, 2 epilepsy alert dogs, and 3 hearing dogs). Initially, study participants reported low health-related quality of life compared with the general population. At follow-up, health-related quality of life measured with the EQ-VAS, well-being and level of physical activity had improved significantly. In the subgroup analysis, physical service dog owners had lower health-related quality of life than diabetes alert dog owners. The improvement from baseline to follow-up measured with EQ-5D statistically differed between the subgroups.
Conclusions
The target population for service and hearing dogs has an overall low health-related quality of life. Our study indicates that having a certified service or hearing dog may have positive impact on health-related quality of life, well-being and activity level. Service and hearing dogs are a potentially important “wagging tail aid” for this vulnerable population, able to alleviate strain, increase independence, and decrease the risk of social isolation.
Trial Registration
The trial was retrospectively registered in http://clinicaltrial.gov, NCT03270592. September, 2017.
Periodic monitoring of the training of prospective guide dogs for the blind was evaluated to determine if the monitoring is useful in gauging the potential suitability of guide dogs. We selected 8 dogs as test dogs on the basis of their medical check and pretraining evaluation. Beginning with day 1 of training, we monitored their progress every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. The evaluation was designed to assess task performance, stress, excitement, and concentration for the task. We set the test course in a residential district, but in an area that was not used for daily training. In some variables, such as tail position, duration of distraction, and effect of the training break, there were some differences between a dog that successfully completed guide training and dogs that did not.
The number of stress reactions was significantly different between successful and unsuccessful dogs. Only 1 dog out of the 8 observed became a guide dog; however, the present study suggests that it is possible to detect some traits in the early stages of training that determine whether or not a dog successfully becomes a guide dog.
In two studies, we have investigated the co-operative behaviour between dogs and their owners. We supposed that co-operative behaviour is an inherited trait in dogs, and is a major contributing factor in the development of successful guide dog performance. According to our view, leading a blind person involves complex behaviour where success depends on the ability of the participants to synchronise their actions. In Study I, we observed both British and Hungarian blind owners taking a half-hour walk in their neighbourhood. In Study II, both guide dogs with their blind and pet dogs with their blind-folded owners had to master an obstacle course. Measuring the frequency of initiations of various actions during leading their owners, dogs did not keep the role of the initiator to themselves. However, both dogs and humans were found to initiate more often in some types of actions, for example, guide dogs initialised avoidance or stepping up more often than their owners. Further, the role of the initiator was kept only for short durations, longer sequences of initialising were rare.
Despite many differences among groups studied, we observed some qualitative similarities in the co-operative behaviour of dogs. We assume that during domestication, dogs have been selected for the ability to change to-and-fro the role of the initiator that seems to be fundamental in this type of co-operation. In the case of leading the blind, information should not only be provided but also accepted by both parties in the course of the joint actions, therefore, the leadership (the role of the initiator) may vary form one action to the next.
Purpose: To evaluate the effects of service dogs on psychosocial health and indicators of wellbeing among individuals with physical disabilities or chronic conditions.
Materials and methods: A total of 154 individuals participated in a cross-sectional survey including 97 placed with a mobility or medical service dog and 57 on the waitlist to receive one. Hierarchical regression evaluated the effect of having a service dog on standardized measures of psychosocial health (Pediatric Quality of Life Inventory) as well as anger, companionship, and sleep disturbance (Patient Reported Outcome Measurement Information System). Among those with a service dog, the Monash Dog–Owner Relationship Scale quantified the human–animal bond.
Results: Results indicated that compared to those on the waitlist, individuals with a service dog exhibited significantly better psychosocial health including higher social, emotional, and work/school functioning. There was no significant effect of having a service dog on anger, companionship, or sleep disturbance. Among those with a service dog, emotional closeness, dog–owner interaction, and amount of time since the service dog was placed were weak correlates of outcomes.
Conclusions: Findings suggest that service dogs may have measurable effects on specific aspects of psychosocial health for individuals with physical disabilities or chronic conditions.
- Implications for rehabilitation
Health care providers should recognize that in addition to the functional benefits service dogs are trained to provide, they can also provide their handlers with psychosocial benefits from their assistance and companionship.
Results indicate that having a service dog was related to better emotional functioning, social functioning, and work/school functioning. Areas with no significant relationship with having a service dog included social companionship, sleep, and anger.
Although findings are from a large and representative sample of mobility and medical service dogs, there may be individual differences in how service dogs affect the psychosocial health of their handlers.
The exploratory study reported in this chapter asked blind people how their lives are with and without guide dogs. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 80 21–71 yr old and older blind people in Germany, 40 of whom had a guide dog. Content analyses revealed that dependence on others, constant nervous strain, social problems, and communication problems are the primary stress factors of blind people. Social support and the support given by a guide dog are some of the coping strategies that are used in regard to these stress factors.
A comparison of the use of mobility canes with the company of a guide dog indicated that those blind people who own a dog clearly prefer the animal, at least in most situations. To a lesser extent, this statement also holds for a comparison of human chaperones with guide dogs. Blind guide dog owners feel more independent with their dogs than they do in the company of a chaperone. Further, these data also indicate that the support provided by the guide dogs to their owners actually surpasses the initial high hopes held by the owners. Finally, both blind owners and nonowners perceive many benefits from a guide dog. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)
Purpose: The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the sociodemographic profile of service dog users, their physical disabilities, main occupations, living environment, and use of technical aids in daily life and (2) evaluate the impact of service dogs on wheelchair travel and picking up objects. Method: Sociodemographic and clinical data were collected and various mobility tests were conducted in the service dog users’ home environment (n = 199). Results: The service dog users had injuries to the central or peripheral nervous system (55%), spinal cord (33%), or musculoskeletal or orthopedic system (12%). In the wheelchair travel on flat terrain test (n = 67), users travelled a longer distance in a shorter time, improving their average speed to 1.28 m/s with the service dog compared to 0.75 m/s without (p < 0.001). In a wheelchair propelling up a slope, 42% improved with the service dog (n = 60). Mounting a threshold/curb in a wheelchair, 41% improved with the service dog (n = 39). In a test where walkers and wheelchair users picked up three objects off the ground, 44% improved with the service dog (n = 164). Conclusion: Service dogs significantly improved wheelchair travel speed and distance on flat and ascending terrain, mounting a threshold/curb and picking up objects off the ground.
- Implications for Rehabilitation
For people with motor impairments:
Service dogs are most often used as a technical aid to pick up objects (96%), open doors (36%) and pull the wheelchair during travel (34%).
Clients’ performance in significant travel in a wheelchair (on flat terrain, on an upslope, mounting a threshold) improved with the service dog compared to their own performance without the dog.
Clients’ grasping performance (picking up three significant objects off the ground) improved with the service dog compared to their own performance without the dog.
Dogs that are trained without dependence on the attentional focus of human beings (experimental group: a guide dog and guide dog candidates) were compared with those trained with the usual level of attentional focus (control group: a service dog, service dog candidates, a search and rescue dog, and pet dogs) to examine whether the ability of a dog to read the attentional focus of a human being was influenced by guide dog training. An experimenter commanded the dogs to sit using several predetermined postures, which included the direction of the experimenter’s head, eyes, and body. The results indicated that there were no statistical differences between the 2 groups. Dogs from both the groups gave a significantly reduced response to commands when the experimenter’s head was not oriented toward them, response to commands was not affected by the direction of the experimenter’s eyes or body. This study suggests that the ability of a dog to read the attentional focus of a human being is not affected by guide dog training.
Hunde, die ohne Abhängigkeit vom Aufmerksamkeitsfokus der Menschen ausgebildet werden (Versuchsgruppe: ein Blindenführhund und Blindenführhund-Kandidaten), wurden mit Hunden verglichen, die mit dem üblichen Niveau des Aufmerksamkeitsfokus ausgebildet werden (Kontrollgruppe: ein Servicehund, Servicehund-Kandidaten, ein Such- und Rettungshund und Haushunde), um zu bestimmen, ob die Fähigkeit von Hunden, den Aufmerksamkeitsfokus von Menschen zu erkennen, von der Ausbildung zum Blindenführhund beeinflusst wird. Ein Experimentator befahl den Hunden mit mehreren vorgegebenen Körperhaltungen (welche die Richtung des Kopfes, der Augen und des Körpers einschlossen) zu sitzen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass es zwischen den zwei Gruppen keine statistischen Unterschiede gab. Hunde beider Gruppen gaben eine signifikant reduzierte Rückmeldung auf Befehle, wenn der Kopf des Experimentators nicht in ihre Richtung gerichtet war. Reaktionen auf Befehle wurden nicht von der Richtung des Körpers oder der Augen des Experimentators beeinflusst. Diese Studie zeigt, dass die Fähigkeit von Hunden, den Aufmerksamkeitszustand von Menschen zu erkennen, nicht durch die Blindenführhund-Ausbildung beeinflusst wird.
3 Assistance Dogs in the Public
Purpose: This cross-sectional study examined whether partnering with service dogs influenced psychosocial well-being and community participation of adult individuals using wheelchairs or scooters.
Method: One hundred and fifty-two people were recruited and group-matched, resulting in 76 participants with and 76 without service dogs. Standardized scale scores for affect, depressive symptoms, self-esteem, and loneliness were used to operationally define psychosocial well-being. Community participation was assessed with the ‘Social Integration’ domain of the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique.
Results: Psychosocial characteristics did not differ significantly between those partnered with and without service dogs overall. However, of participants with progressive conditions, those with service dogs demonstrated significantly higher positive affect scores than comparison group participants. Among those with clinical depression, service dog partners scored significantly higher in positive affect. Finally, regardless of whether individuals had service dogs, fewer depressive symptoms and being female or married were predictors of greater community participation.
Conclusion: Select individuals may experience psychosocial benefits from partnering with service dogs. However, it is unclear if these benefits might also be derived from companion dogs. Further research is needed to substantiate the findings of this study.
This retrospective study of people in wheelchairs who have service dogs reports their experiences with strangers in public before and after obtaining their dogs. The specific hypothesis tested was that the acquisition of a service dog would increase the number of friendly approaches by strangers. Subjects reported a significantly higher number of social greetings from adults and children on typical shopping trips with the dog as compared with those received on trips before they had the dog or with recent trips when the dog was not present. Subjects with service dogs reported more approaches than a control group without dogs. After obtaining dogs, subjects also increased their evening outings.
This study investigates ontogenetic aspects of attachment behaviour in guide dogs using the Strange Situation Test (SST). Seventeen dogs were tested three times in different periods of the guide dog training program. The first test was carried out when the dogs were 11–15 months old and before entering the training program; the second test took place after 4 months of training; the last test was carried out after more than 1 year of service as guide dogs. Therefore three different human figures were involved in the program: the puppy walker, the trainer and the blind owner. In each test the dogs’ behaviour was video recorded and subsequently scored using a 5-s point sampling method; furthermore heart rate (HR) was recorded both before (HR basal average) and during the SST.
Results of the present study show that when tested for the first time at the age of 11 months, dogs exhibited an intense play activity and a limited discrimination of the attachment figure: during separation from the puppy walker their attention was directed towards the stranger that could offer comfort rather than to the owner's exit from the room. On the contrary, the same dogs tested when adult, after 1 year of life with the blind owner were specifically interested in regaining contact with their owner despite the presence of another friendly human (the stranger) available for support. The three repetitions of the SST had only a limited impact on dogs behaviour: previous experiences with the room and the procedure of the test did determine a decrease of exploratory behaviour and of puppet fear, but not of the emotional response to separation from the owner. As the heart rate curve was available only for a limited number of dogs cautious conclusions are drawn on cardiac activity: when adult, dogs showed a higher cardiac activation despite a decrement in HR baseline. Overall, the outcome of the present study indicate that a full-fledged attachment is showed when guide dogs reach maturity and that repeated bond breaking is not detrimental to forming attachment later in life.
Purpose: The objectives of this study were to (1) describe the sociodemographic profile of service dog users, their physical disabilities, main occupations, living environment, and use of technical aids in daily life and (2) evaluate the impact of service dogs on wheelchair travel and picking up objects. Method: Sociodemographic and clinical data were collected and various mobility tests were conducted in the service dog users’ home environment (n = 199). Results: The service dog users had injuries to the central or peripheral nervous system (55%), spinal cord (33%), or musculoskeletal or orthopedic system (12%). In the wheelchair travel on flat terrain test (n = 67), users travelled a longer distance in a shorter time, improving their average speed to 1.28 m/s with the service dog compared to 0.75 m/s without (p < 0.001). In a wheelchair propelling up a slope, 42% improved with the service dog (n = 60). Mounting a threshold/curb in a wheelchair, 41% improved with the service dog (n = 39). In a test where walkers and wheelchair users picked up three objects off the ground, 44% improved with the service dog (n = 164). Conclusion: Service dogs significantly improved wheelchair travel speed and distance on flat and ascending terrain, mounting a threshold/curb and picking up objects off the ground.
- Implications for Rehabilitation
For people with motor impairments:
Service dogs are most often used as a technical aid to pick up objects (96%), open doors (36%) and pull the wheelchair during travel (34%).
Clients’ performance in significant travel in a wheelchair (on flat terrain, on an upslope, mounting a threshold) improved with the service dog compared to their own performance without the dog.
Clients’ grasping performance (picking up three significant objects off the ground) improved with the service dog compared to their own performance without the dog.
Background: People with disabilities may benefit from an assistance dog (AD). Despite regulations that prohibit the denial of ADs to public places, this still occurs on a regular basis. The main argument for denial of access is that dogs compromise hygiene with their presence, which could cause a health hazard. Meanwhile, people are allowed to walk into and out of public places freely.
Objective: As a pilot study, to investigate the number of Enterobacteriaceae and the presence of Clostridium difficile bacteria on the paws of ADs and pet dogs (PDs) as well as the shoe soles of their users and owners. With the results, an assessment can be made as to whether measures are required to reduce environmental contamination (e.g., in hospitals).
Methods: In total, 25 ADs, 25 PDs, and their 50 users/owners participated in the study. Each participant walked their dog for 15–30 min prior to the sampling of the front paws. Each PD owner or AD user filled out a general questionnaire about the care of their dogs, and AD users were asked to fill out an additional questionnaire on their experiences regarding the admittance of their ADs to public places (in particular, hospitals). Dutch hospitals were questioned on their protocols regarding the admittance of ADs and their visitor numbers, including the percentage of AD users, to put these numbers into perspective.
Results: Dog paws were more often negative for Enterobacteriaceae compared to shoe soles (72% and 42%, respectively) and also had significantly lower bacterial counts (mean of 3.54log10 and 5.03log10 colony-forming units (CFUs), respectively; p < 0.05). This was most distinct in the comparison between PDs and their owners (3.75log10 and 5.25log10 CFUs; p < 0.05); the numbers were similar between ADs and their users (3.09log10 and 4.58log10 CFUs; p = 0.2). C. difficile was found on one (4%) AD user’s shoe soles. Moreover, 81% of AD users had been denied access with their current AD once or several times, the main reason being hygiene. The results of the visibly and invisibly disabled were significantly different. The number of AD users as opposed to the total number of hospital visitors was 0.03% in one hospital and is estimated to be 0.02% in the Netherlands.
Conclusions: The general hygiene of dogs’ paws is far better than that of shoe soles, mostly demonstrated by the better general hygiene of PD paws compared with their owners’ shoe soles; ADs and their users had comparable levels of general hygiene. In addition, the number of AD users amongst the total number of hospital visitors in the Netherlands is very limited. Thus, hygiene measures to reduce any contamination due to dog paws do not seem necessary.
4 Assistance Dogs in Office/School
The use of service or assistance dogs has increased over the past three decades but is still considered by many to be an emerging concept for assisting people with disabilities to navigate a number of environments. This is predominately due to the minimal research that has been done on the effect and promising practices. One area, employment, has been completely overlooked in research related to service dogs. This research project undertook an exploratory study to gather data on the elements of service dog partnerships that have been successful in the workplace. A structured methodology using mixed methods was used to gather ideas from a diverse group of stakeholders, people with service dogs, trainers, vocational rehabilitation counselors, and other healthcare professionals, to form a common framework for addressing the issue in future research and development of interventions. The results identified 68 elements that respondents perceived and rated to be important or highly important to the phenomenon.
They were categorized into six clusters: (1) dog preparation, (2) monitoring, (3) employee competence, (4) legal knowledge, (5) information and education, and (6) coworker preparation. The discussion identified key points that might support the development of successful employment outcomes for people working with service dogs.
Diversity strengthens science, but current policies need to do more to explicitly address inclusion of the growing population of people with disabilities who rely on service dogs. Here, I discuss my personal experiences of attempting to access laboratories with a service dog.
5 Selection of Assistance Dogs
As part of a collaborative project involving five guide and service dog organizations in the USA (Canine Companions for Independence, Guide Dogs for the Blind, Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Leader Dogs for the Blind and The Seeing Eye), volunteer puppy raisers provided information about the behavior of the guide and service dogs in their care via a questionnaire (the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire, or C-BARQ©; www.cbarq.org). The surveys were completed online when the puppies were 6 months old and again at 12 months of age. Dogs were tracked through training and those that successfully completed training and were matched with a blind/disabled handler or were selected as breeders were classified as successful while dogs rejected from the program due to behavioral issues were classified as released (dogs rejected for medical reasons were excluded from analysis). A total of 11,997 C-BARQ evaluations for 7696 dogs were analyzed. Generalized linear modeling for each of the five schools revealed that dogs that successfully completed training scored more favorably on 27 out of 36 C-BARQ traits at both 6 and 12 months of age compared to those that were released from the programs. The most predictive trait at both age levels was pulls excessively hard on leash, for which each unit increase in score was associated with a 1.4 increase in the odds of being released from the program. The ability of the C-BARQ to discriminate between dogs that were later successful or released differed across organizations (P = 0.001 and P < 0.0001 for 6- and 12-month surveys, respectively), most likely due to differences in the procedures used when making decisions about whether or not to release dogs. These findings provide convincing evidence that the C-BARQ is able to discriminate between dogs that are behaviorally suited for guide or service work and those that are not and may provide trainers with useful information about potential training or breeding candidates as early as 6 months of age.
Als Teil eines kollaborativen Projekts mit fünf Blindenhund- und Servicehund-Organisationen in den USA (Canine Companions for Independence, Guide Dogs for the Blind, Guiding Eyes for the Blind, Leader Dogs for the Blind and The Seeing Eye) beantworteten freiwillige Hunde-Erzieher den C-BARQ-Fragebogen über das Verhalten von Blinden- und Servicehunden aus ihrer Obhut. Diese wurden ausgefüllt, als die Hunde sechs Monate und zwölf Monate alt waren. Assistenzhunde, die die Ausbildung abgeschlossen haben und einem Menschen mit Behinderung übergeben wurden oder zur Züchtung ausgewählt wurden, wurden als erfolgreich eingeordnet, während Hunde, die aufgrund von Verhaltensproblemen abgelehnt wurden, als entlassen klassifiziert wurden. Tiere, die aus medizinischen Gründen abgelehnt wurden, wurden in der Studie nicht beachtet. Insgesamt wurden 11997 Evaluationen mit Angaben über 7696 Hunden analysiert. Es ergab sich, dass Hunde, die eine Ausbildung komplett absolviert haben, im Alter von sechs und zwölf Monaten in 27 von 36 Untersuchungsmerkmalen besser abschnitten als Hunde, die aus dem Programm entlassen wurden. Die Fähigkeit, mit dem C-BARQ-Test zwischen später erfolgreichen und später entlassenen Hunden zu unterscheiden, wurde stark von der jeweiligen Organisation beeinflusst, da jede Organisation andere Bewertungskriterien angesetzt hat. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass man mit dem C-BARQ-Test zwischen Hunden, deren Verhalten für die Arbeit als Blinden- oder Servicehund geeignet ist, und Hunden, deren Verhalten nicht für die Arbeit als Blinden- oder Servicehund geeignet ist, unterscheiden kann. Schon im Alter von sechs Monaten können mögliche Übungen vorgeschlagen oder Kandidaten für die Züchtung erkannt werden.
6 Assistance Dog Training
This study examined 60 juvenile Labrador (LR) and golden retrievers (GR) and their puppy raisers (PR) to determine the effect of training (n = 20) and socialization (n = 20) compared with a control group (n = 20). These potential guide dogs were randomly allocated into 3 groups of 20 (2 treatment groups and 1 control). Training sessions ran for 6 weeks (only 5 of which were attended by the dogs), and socialization groups ran for 5 weeks (all of which were attended by the dogs). Training involved teaching a bridge (clicker); basic obedience behaviors including sit, drop, loose-leash walking, and recalls; as well as desensitization to handling, discussions about anxiety and environmental enrichment, and play time. Socialization classes covered the same discursive material, but without the training and bridge components. The control group comprised other pups and their PRs within the guide dog puppy-raising program but who were not given access to these additional classes. Like the dogs in both the treatments, these control dogs also underwent the Guide Dog NSW/ACT program but received no direct intervention through the current study.
The authors hypothesized that training and socialization would improve the success rates of dogs in the guide dog program. However, the treatments did not influence the rate of success nor the likelihood of PRs raising a subsequent pup. The interaction between color and sex had some effect on success rates; yellow female LRs had the greatest chance of success, and female GRs had the lowest chance of success. This difference may warrant further investigation in a broader study to assist in decisions as to which breeds and sexes are most successful in guide dog organizations.
For the dog to become a safe and fluent guide for a vision impaired person it will be necessary for it to employ the cognitive processes of selective attention, pattern recognition, categorisation, discrimination, prediction and the mental representation of knowledge and its translation into action. Above all the guide dog needs to be a confident decision maker and problem solver, capable of operating with purposeful intent within a set of rules.
If the dog is to guide its vision impaired owner safely in town or city, stopping at kerbs, avoiding pedestrians and street furniture, manoeuvring around ladders and helping its owner cross roads safely, it will need to be much more than a well conditioned and unthinking robot!
This e-pub will be of value to dog owners and professional trainers, education and training staff of guide dog schools, students of animal and human cognition, veterinary staff, and anyone who has a curiosity about how the guide dog does its job.
Evidence supporting seizure-related behaviors in dogs is emerging. The methods of seizure response dog (SRD) training programs are unstudied. A standardized survey was retrospectively applied to graduates of a large SRD program. Subjective changes in quality of life (QOL) parameters were explored. Data were captured on animal characteristics, training methods, response and alerting behaviors, effects on seizure frequency, and accuracy of epilepsy diagnosis. Twenty-two patients (88%) participated (median age = 34, range = 12–66, 73% female). Most had childhood-onset epilepsy (87%) that was refractory with averages of 36 seizures/month and 4.8 medications failed. All had neurologist-confirmed epilepsy, most being symptomatic partial (64%). SRD behaviors were reliable, including emergency response system activation in 27%. All reported SRD-related QOL improvements (major 82%, moderate 18%) across multiple parameters. Spontaneous alerting behavior developed in 59%. That SRD programs may select genuine epilepsy patients, instill valuable assistance skills, and generate meaningful QOL improvements supports further seizure dog research.
Es entstehen immer mehr Beweise dafür, dass Hunde auf Anfälle von Menschen reagieren. Die Methoden der Ausbildung von Anfalls-Hilfshunden sind unerforscht. Eine standardisierte Umfrage wurde retrospektiv auf Absolventen eines großen Ausbildungsprogramm von Anfalls-Hilfshunden eingesetzt. Subjektive Veränderungen der Parameter, die die Lebensqualität betreffen, wurden untersucht. Es wurden Daten zu Eigenschaften der Tiere, Ausbildungsmethoden, Reaktions- und Warnverhalten, Auswirkungen auf die Häufigkeit der Anfälle und Genauigkeit der Epilepsie-Diagnose gesammelt. 22 Patienten zwischen 12 und 66 Jahren nahmen teil (Durchschnittsalter 34, 73% weiblich). Die meisten hatten seit dem Kindesalter Epilepsie (87%), die mit durchschnittlich 36 Anfällen pro Monat und 4,8 gescheiterten medikamentösen Behandlungen refraktär war. Alle Epilepsie-Erkrankungen waren vom Neurologen bestätigt, die meisten waren symptomatisch partiell (64%). Das Verhalten von Anfalls-Hilfshunden war zuverlässig, zudem wurde in 27% der Fälle das Notfalleinsatzsystem aktiviert. Alle berichteten über Verbesserungen vieler Parameter bezüglich der Lebensqualität durch den Anfalls-Hilfshund (starke Verbesserung 82%, moderate Verbesserung 18%). Spontanes Warnverhalten entwickelte sich in 59% der Fälle. Dass Ausbildungsprogramme für Anfalls-Hilfshunde epilepsiekranken Menschen wertvolle Unterstützung und eine bedeutungsvolle Verbesserung der Lebensqualität bieten können, unterstützt die weitere Forschung über Anfallshunde.
Purpose: This Australian study piloted a new measure of Orientation and Mobility to better understand the functional mobility of guide dog handlers with low vision or blindness. It is expected that this measure can be used to better match guide dogs to their handlers.
Materials and methods: The new Orientation and Mobility Outcomes tool scores a client in Stable/Familiar and Dynamic/Unfamiliar conditions, also considering Travel-Related Wellbeing. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 51 guide dog handlers, during which travel skills were co-rated with an interviewer.
Results: A cluster analysis of the Orientation and Mobility Outcomes data identified four mobility styles: intrepid explorers, social navigators, independent roamers and homebodies. The differences between these clusters had more to do with mental mapping skills than level of vision, and different guide dog characteristics were needed to support the travel styles identified for each cluster.
Conclusions: The results confirm the importance of the Orientation and Mobility Outcomes tool as a sensitive, person-centred measure of the impact of Orientation and Mobility and guide dog training. In particular, the four mobility clusters provide a new perspective on matching guide dogs with clients, also suggesting the need for a more personalised look at the guide dog training process.
- Implications for Rehabilitation
Orientation and Mobility Outcomes data seem precise enough to support and inform the process of matching guide dogs to handlers.
Uniform results cannot be expected from guide dog mobility in handlers – age, stage of life, health and spatial cognition impact the competence and travel style of guide dog handlers, whereas vision is less important.
Sharing the work of visual interpretation and decision making with a guide dog makes independent travel more possible.
Valuable dog characteristics that are specific to handler requirements might be bred or trained from puppy raising onwards, creating a more diverse pool of dogs to draw upon.
Periodic monitoring of the training of prospective guide dogs for the blind was evaluated to determine if the monitoring is useful in gauging the potential suitability of guide dogs. We selected 8 dogs as test dogs on the basis of their medical check and pretraining evaluation. Beginning with day 1 of training, we monitored their progress every 2 weeks for 12 weeks. The evaluation was designed to assess task performance, stress, excitement, and concentration for the task. We set the test course in a residential district, but in an area that was not used for daily training. In some variables, such as tail position, duration of distraction, and effect of the training break, there were some differences between a dog that successfully completed guide training and dogs that did not.
The number of stress reactions was significantly different between successful and unsuccessful dogs. Only 1 dog out of the 8 observed became a guide dog; however, the present study suggests that it is possible to detect some traits in the early stages of training that determine whether or not a dog successfully becomes a guide dog.
This article scrutinises issues around disability and dependent (interdependent) agency, extending these to non-human animals and service dogs, with a sustained reference to the training of guide dogs. It does this through a detailed engagement with the training methodology and philosophy of The Seeing Eye guide dog school in the 1930s, exploring the physical, bodily and instrumental means through which the guide dog partnership, and the identity of the instructor, the guide dog and the guide dog owner, jointly came into being. The novelty of the article lies in how it reconsiders what interdependence meant and means from the perspectives drawing from historical and sociological literature on dog training. In doing so it opens up new ways of thinking about service animals that recognise their historical contingency and the complex processes at work in the creation and development of interdependent agency.
This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made.
Aims. Domestic dogs are trained to a wide variety of roles including an increasing number of medical assistance tasks. Glycaemia alert dogs are reported to greatly improve the quality of life of owners living with Type 1 diabetes. Research into their value is currently sparse, on small numbers of dogs and provides conflicting results. In this study we assess the reliability of a large number of trained glycaemic alert dogs at responding to hypo- and hyper-glycaemic (referred to as out-of-range, OOR) episodes, and explore factors associated with variations in their performance.
Methods. Routine owner records were used to assess the sensitivity and specificity of each of 27 dogs, trained by a single UK charity during almost 4000 out-of-range episodes. Sensitivity and positive predictive values are compared to demographic factors and instructors’ ratings of the dog, owner and partnership.
Results. Dogs varied in their performance, with median sensitivity to out-of-range episodes at 70% (25th percentile = 50, 75th percentile = 95). To hypoglycaemic episodes the median sensitivity was 83% (66–94%) while to hyperglyaemic episodes it was 67% (17–91%). The median positive predictive value (PPV) was 81% (68–94%), i.e. on average 81% of alerts occurred when glucose levels were out of target range. For four dogs, PPV was 100%. Individual characteristics of the dog, the partnership and the household were significantly associated with performance (e.g., whether the dog was previously a pet, when it was trained, whether its partner was an adult or child).
Conclusions. The large sample shows that the individual performance of dogs is variable, but overall their sensitivity and specificity to OOR episodes are better than previous studies suggest. Results show that optimal performance of glycaemic alert dogs depends not only on good initial and ongoing training, but also careful selection of dogs for the conditions in which they will be working.
Studies identifying the underlying determinants of adult dog behavior and highlighting successful methods of early intervention are essential to reduce and ultimately prevent problem behaviors developing. The aim of this research was to create and assess the impact of a new nest socialization program. The new program was designed to: 1) provide a highly effective socialization experience, 2) be quick and easy to complete and 3) utilize low cost materials. The program was created by combining existing nest stimulation theories with young puppy developmental stages. As such the introduction and intensity of each socialization stimulus was tailored to mirror puppy physiological and behavioral development from birth to six weeks of age.
The new socialization program was evaluated using six litters raised under standardized conditions. The impact of the program was measured using a practical puppy behavioral assessment at six weeks of age and an eight-month dog handler behavioral questionnaire.Results showed a significant positive effect of the new socialization program on puppy behavioral development, which persisted throughout the first year of life. Puppies that received the program had more favorable scores in a six-week practical assessment (P ≪ 0.01) and an eight-month dog handler questionnaire for separation-related behavior (P ≪ 0.01), distraction (P ≪ 0.01), general anxiety (P = 0.02) and body sensitivity (P = 0.03). This is the first socialization program tailored to the developmental stage of puppies from birth to six weeks of age to demonstrate measurable, long-term effects on individual dog behavioral traits. Results will be of interest to working and assistance dog organizations, animal shelters and pet dog breeders.
7 Owner-Training vs. External Training
Aims: Patients with diabetes increasingly have questions about diabetes alert dogs. This study evaluated perceptions about dogs trained professionally or otherwise to detect glucose levels. Methods: A link to a survey about glucose detecting dogs was announced on diabetes websites. Results: 135 persons responded, with 63 answering about their child with diabetes. Most respondents obtained their dog from a professional trainer (n=54) or trained it themselves(n=51). Owners of self and professionally-trained dogs were very positive about dogs’ abilities to alert them to low and high glucose levels, while owners of dogs that learned entirely on their own (n=15) reported lower frequencies of alerts and more missed hypo-glycemic episodes, p<.01. Regardless of how dogs learned, perceptions about managing diabetes were improved during periods of dog ownership relative to times without, p<.001. Self-reported rates of diabetes-related hospitalizations, assistance from others for treating hypoglycemia, and accidents or near accidents while driving reduced during periods of dog ownership compared to periods without dogs, ps<.01. Conclusions: These data suggest potential effectiveness of and high satisfaction with glucose-detecting dogs. Clinicians can use these results to address pros and cons of dog ownership with patients who inquire about them.
Patienten mit Diabetes haben immer häufiger Fragen zu Diabetes-Warnhunden. Diese Studie bewertet die Erkenntnisse über Hunde, die professionell oder anderweitig ausgebildet wurden, um Glukose-Werte zu bestimmen. Auf Diabetes-Internetseiten wurde ein Link zu einer Umfrage über Glukose erkennende Hunde geteilt. 135 Personen nahmen teil, 63 davon hatten ein Kind mit Diabetes. Die meisten Teilnehmer erhielten ihren Hund von einem professionellen Ausbilder (54) oder bildeten ihn selber aus (51). Besitzer von selbst oder professionell ausgebildeten Hunden waren sehr positiv gegenüber der Fähigkeit der Hunde, sie vor hohen oder niedrigen Glukose-Werten zu warnen, während Besitzer von Hunden, die dies ganz allein gelernt haben (15), über eine geringere Häufigkeit von Warnungen und mehr verpasste hypoglykämische Episoden berichteten. Unabhängig von der Art der Ausbildung der Hunde verbesserte sich die Wahrnehmung über die Bewältigung von Diabetes, während Patienten einen Hund besaßen. Im Vergleich zu Perioden ohne Hund reduzierten sich die selbstberichtete Anzahl der durch Diabetes hervorgerufenen Krankenhausaufenthalte, die Unterstützung anderer zur Behandlung von Hypoglykämie und Unfälle oder Beinaheunfälle während des Autofahrens, wenn die Teilnehmer einen Hund hatten. Diese Daten deuten auf eine mögliche Effektivität von und eine hohe Zufriedenheit mit Hunden, die Glukose-Werte erkennen können, hin. Mediziner können diese Ergebnisse nutzen, um Vor- und Nachteile von Diabetes-Warnhunden mit Patienten zu besprechen, die sich danach erkundigen.